lego and friends yacht

Rescue Mission Boat

Description

Every second counts as three friends work to rescue a narwhal beached in the shallow waters of Heartlake City Bay. Race to nurse the whale with Mia in her rescue boat. Help LEGO® Friends Andrea to steady the LEGO Friends boat while Olivia operates the toy crane to lift the wreckage from the whale's back and stretcher her in. Keep the whale cool in the mission boat's ice pool as they speed out to deeper waters. Once the narwhal is released back into the sea, go diving with the girls to collect sea samples. Help LEGO Friends Mia locate the gem-filled chest using the magic treasure map.

Building Instructions

41381 Rescue Mission Boat

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Produktkennzeichnungen

Herstellernummer 41015
Upc 0673419189972
Modell Yacht
eBay Product ID (ePID) 9042983369

Produkt Hauptmerkmale

Produktart Bausatz
Altersempfehlung 7-12
LEGO Themenwelt FRIENDS
LEGO Set Nummer 41015
Anzahl der Teile 612
Erscheinungsjahr 2013
LEGO Set Name Yacht
Herstellungsjahr 2013
Breite 282 mm
Länge 540 mm

Zusätzliche Produkteigenschaften

Farbe Mehrfarben
EU TSD Warnung Nicht für Kinder unter 36 Monaten geeignet
FSC-Kompatibilität Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Mix

LEGO Racing Yacht LEGO (R) Complete Sets & Packs

Lego friends sets & packs, lego racing yacht technic lego (r) complete sets & packs, friends lego (r) lots, lego vehicles racing yacht lego (r) complete sets & packs, lego friends lego (r) stickers.

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Flickering Myth

Geek Culture | Movies, TV, Comic Books & Video Games

LEGO unveils Harry Potter, Disney, City and Friends Advent Calendars for 2024

May 2, 2024 by Amie Cranswick

LEGO has unveiled its 2024 Advent Calendar selection, which includes new offerings for the LEGO Harry Potter, LEGO Disney, LEGO City, and LEGO Friends themes, and will hit shelves on September 1st; check out the promotional images and details below…

Every day leading up to Christmas brings another magical, buildable Hogwarts™ adventure with the LEGO® Harry Potter™ 2024 Advent Calendar (76438) fantasy toy playset for kids.

Children will discover LEGO Harry Potter mini build toys related to the4 Hogwarts houses, including a gargoyle and table that is covered in festive items for each of Gryffindor™, Slytherin™, Hufflepuff™ and Ravenclaw™. There are also 2 of 14 collectible Hogwarts portraits, Christmas tree, Christmas crackers, a Hogwarts Ex press train and more. This Advent calendar set also has 7 LEGO Harry Potter minifigures for role play, including Harry Potter, Susan Bones, and Professor Flitwick, plus a Hedwig™ toy figure.

If you’re looking for the best Harry Potter Christmas gift idea for kids aged 7 and up, this Wizarding World building toy is ideal for inspiring group or independent play during the holiday season. The minifigures and buildable models inside this calendar can be added to the Great Hall in set 76435.

Harry Potter™ Christmas fantasy toy for kids – Give kids a magical building adventure every day in the run-up to Christmas with this LEGO® Harry Potter 2024 Advent Calendar playset
Set includes 8 LEGO® Harry Potter™ toy characters – Harry Potter, Susan Bones, Cho Chang™, Draco Malfoy™, Albus Dumbledore™, Professor Flitwick and Choir Ghost minifigures, plus a Hedwig™ figure
16 mini builds – A table, festive items and a gargoyle for each of the 4 Hogwarts™ houses, 2 of 14 collectible Hogwarts portraits, a teacher’s table, Hogwarts Express train and other festive items
LEGO® Harry Potter™ Wizarding World toy combos – The minifigures and buildable models inside this calendar can be added to the 76435 LEGO Harry Potter set, which features The Great Hall
Christmas gift idea for kids aged 7 and up – Give this 301-piece building toy as a holiday gift to kids to recreate Harry Potter’s first Christmas at Hogwarts™ in LEGO® style
Illustrated instructions – Find a simple pictorial guide to building the models on the back of each door of the Advent calendar and on the LEGO® Builder app
Part of an extensive assortment – LEGO® Harry Potter™ toy building sets put favorite characters, familiar locations and magical adventures into the hands of young wizards, witches and Muggles™

Start the holiday countdown for kids aged 5+ with the fun Christmas Advent Calendar 2024 (43253) full of Disney gifts. This building set for kids includes Elsa, Tiana, Ariel, Moana and Mirabel LEGO® ǀ Disney micro-doll figures, plus LEGO ǀ Disney Pua, Snowgie and adorable baby reindeer Sven characters. Behind every door is a character or mini build to help deliver a daily dose of holiday cheer and magic.

In addition to the building activities, the box becomes part of the fun, opening to reveala colorful game board that takes kids on an exciting journey to the Disney Castle. Kids get to experience a little Christmas fun every day, and indulge their passion for Disney characters, LEGO creativity and the holiday season with a premium buildable playset filled with endless fun.

Once the season is over, this LEGO Advent calendar building set can continue as a fun activity and be added to others in the LEGO ǀ Disney series (each sold separately) to further enhance and expand the play.

LEGO® ǀ Disney Advent Calendar 2024 – Surprise kids aged 5 and up with a 253-piece buildable toy packed with 24 days of characters, activities and surprises
Buildable playset – Each day offers a new festive build or character to inspire play, plus the Advent calendar box turns into a game board for up to 5 players to expand the fun
8 characters and fun accessories – This Advent calendar includes Elsa, Tiana, Ariel, Mirabel and Moana LEGO® ǀ Disney micro-doll figures, plus Pua, Snowgie and Sven characters, presents and much more
Build the fun – Many of the doors reveal buildable activities like a seesaw for the Snowgie, Ariel’s undersea palace, Moana’s mini boat, Elsa’s ice palace, a sled, Christmas tree and much more
LEGO® ǀ Disneygift idea for kids aged 5+ – This buildable set for girls and boys makes a fun Advent or early Christmas gift for Disney-lovers that everyone at school will admire
Create more stories – The buildable toys in this set work with other LEGO® ǀ Disney building kits or LEGO sets (sold separately), letting kids expand the play and imagine new adventures and stories

Build up the excitement of the countdown to Christmas with the LEGO® City Advent Calendar 2024 (60436) for kids aged 5 and up. This year’s Christmas calendar is packed with fun characters, seasonal mini builds and cool minifigure accessories. Kids can also fold out the playmat on the box to create a snowy winter village scene, the perfect setting for magical stories and adventures.

This LEGO Advent calendar makes a great pre-Christmas gift for kids. Each surprise toy comes with easy step-by-step building instructions, printed on the inside of its calendar window, to ensure that even new LEGO builders can enjoy a fun build-and-play experience.

The LEGO City Advent Calendar 2024 is full of festive surprises for kids who love creative play. Kids can also combine the buildable toys, accessories and minifigures included in this calendar with other playsets from the LEGO City range.

Fun-packed Christmas Advent calendar – Build up the countdown to Christmas with the LEGO® City Advent Calendar 2024 for kids aged 5 and up
Advent calendar gift set with 24 surprises – Includes Santa and Mrs. Claus minifigures and characters with Christmas sweaters, including a dog figure, plus mini builds and fun collectibles
Includes a foldout playmat – Kids can fold out the playmat on the box to create a snowy winter village scene for imaginative stories and adventures
Christmas collectibles for little builders – Each mini build in the LEGO® City Advent Calendar comes with an easy-to-follow building guide printed on the inside of its calendar window
A festive pre-Christmas gift – This toy-filled Advent Calendar makes a fun holiday gift for kids and fans of LEGO® building sets aged 5 and up
Creative play without limits – Kids unleash more fun and adventures when they add this set to others (sold separately) from the LEGO® City range
About LEGO® City playsets – LEGO City is a place where kids can unleash their limitless imaginations, with structures, vehicles and citizens that motivate them to build, create, explore and play

Give kids aged 6+ a festive treat as they open the doors of the LEGO® Friends Advent Calendar 2024 (42637) Christmas countdown toy. The set comes with 5 characters, including little Olly, little Paisley, Paisley’s mom, dad and younger sister, plus 2 baby pet characters. There’s also a snow cat figure and lots of accessories.

The calendar takes a trip back in time to when Paisley and Olly were preschoolers. Find a surprise behind each door, with traditions, hobbies and more to explore. Lots of the doors reveal buildable activities, like the catapult, which can be used the next day to knock down the snow castle. There are also cookies to bake, a letter to mail and much more. From singing and sewing to snowboarding and toasting marshmallows, this advent calendar is packed with special moments.

As well as being a fun Christmas toy gift idea for kids, this LEGO set supports young builders’ social-emotional skills as they join Paisley and Olly on their journey through Christmas memories.

LEGO® Friends Advent Calendar 2024 – Here’s a kids’ Christmas countdown toy packed with 24 days of characters, activities and surprises for girls and boys aged 6 years and up
Explore Christmas memories with Paisley and Olly – Each day ignites anew festive memory from when the friends were preschoolers, making this a great toy to support social-emotional skills
Includes 5 characters and lots of festive accessories – This LEGO® set includes little Paisley, little Olly, Paisley’s mom, dad and baby sister, 2 baby pet characters and a snow cat figure
Build the fun – Lots of the doors reveal buildable activities, like the catapult that can be used the next day to knock down a snow castle, plus cookies to bake, a letter to mail, a tree and much more
A 272-piece gift idea for kids – This LEGO® Friends set makes a fun advent or early Christmas gift for girls and boys who love festive activities
Explore more friendship stories – Check out other LEGO® Friends building toys for kids (sold separately), where kids discover diverse characters and locations as they act out real-life adventures

About Amie Cranswick

Amie Cranswick has been part of Flickering Myth’s editorial and management team for over a decade. She has a background in publishing and copyediting and has served as Editor-in-Chief of FlickeringMyth.com since 2023.

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The Brothers Brick

World's no. 1 source for lego news, reviews, and fan creations., tag archives: russia, st. basil’s cathedral is bursting with colour.

Koen Zwanenburg has built this incredible recreation of the iconic Russian cathedral. The dark orange with hints of teal are the most prominent colours in the structure, however, it is the spires that really draw in the eye. Each has its own unique colour scheme and design from jagged blocky shapes to smooth flowing textures. Koen has found inventive ways to represent the swirling patterns of the spires as green minifigure arms are even used in one of the peaks.

Round the back of the display, horned tendrils portray more of the complex designs of the spires. After looking at the building for some time, the structure shares some similarities with gingerbread houses, mainly thanks to the white trim and vibrant colours used in this creation.

The Soviet ZIL-E167 can handle any terrain you throw at it

It’s a little cold in my LEGO room so I turned up the heat and put on a sweater. That leads me to believe that I probably don’t have what it takes to handle the real cold like what they have in Siberia and Urals. There’s a reason there are so many jokes about vodka drinking you in Russia or whatever. Tough terrain means tough people and tough vehicles. Thankfully, SarielLego has what it takes to handle any terrain as evidenced by this remote-controlled ZIL-E167. I’m loving the beefy tires, the orange color, the overall rugged shape, even the little moose decal is rather charming.

Continue reading →

Tough and mean and olive green! Hoorah!

The reason the original castle set from 1978 was yellow and not gray is that LEGO didn’t want to encourage kids to build military stuff. All that changed with the abundance of gray in the Star Wars sets. Still they had similar hesitancy with olive green. It took the Pixar Cars line in 2011 to introduce the color and military builders rejoiced. So there, the joke is on you, LEGO! (That was much funnier when I thought of it earlier today.) While this particular shade of green is now available in many sets, it’s still a difficult color to amass in large quantities. That is just one of many reasons why this rough and tumble Soviet Ural-375D by Rolands Kirpis is so impressive. Another reason is each axle and the steering functions are run by Power Functions motors. It took a year to collect all the right parts to build this model but the end result is as mighty as the Ural mountains.

LEGO Soyuz launcher stands 1.25m high and took a year and a half to build

Since it’s first flight in 1966, the Russian Soyuz rocket system has become the world’s most frequently used launch vehicle. With over 1,700 flights in 50 years, this Russian stalwart has hauled cosmonauts, satellites, and cargo aloft, with its relatively simple design creating an enviable reliability record. However, this LEGO version of the latest Fregat version of the Soyuz is anything but simple — Jussi Koskinen has pulled out all the stops to capture every last feature of the spacecraft’s detailing. The scale of the effort involved is impressive — the model took 18 months to put together, and measures over 1.25m.

The overall structure of this massive model is excellent, and the shaping and angles on the lower boosters are particularly good. The smaller details are worth a look too — don’t miss the texturing around the base of the boosters, the scaffold-style connection between stages, and the nice integration of the Russian flag into the upper stage’s colour scheme. This formidable model wouldn’t look out of place on display beside the LEGO Ideas Saturn 5 set, and that’s high praise indeed.

Colorfully camoflauged Sukhoi SU-34 Fighter-bomber

I’ve always wondered why we don’t paint our military jets with blue camouflage so they blend in with the blue sky. Well, after a quick Google search, it appears that the Russians thought the same thing, because the wonderful camoflauge pattern on this Sukhoi SU-34 by ModernBrix is indeed accurate to the real-life jet . It’s an excellent choice, because we rarely see this type of camouflage pattern recreated in LEGO.

Sukhoi SU-34 Medium-Range Fighter/Bomber

Camouflage aside, the shaping is outstanding, especially on the cockpit and fuselage. The builder has also managed to fit side-by-side seating for two pilots in the cockpit — an uncommon feature the Sukhoi is known for — which eliminates the need for duplicate instruments required in the front and back of tandem seat fighter jets.

Nine chapels of St. Basil’s Cathedral are a marvelous example of LEGO microscale architecture

Markus Rollbühler is a LEGO product designer based in Billund, Denmark. Despite spending his weekdays working with LEGO pieces, Markus challenges himself to build microscale versions of the world’s most famous cathedrals in his spare time. His very special series of architectural masterpieces featuring Frauenkirche Dresden and Santa Maria della Salute is now joined by a marvelous copy of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow, Russia.

St. Basil’s Cathedral is famous for its nine chapels of vibrant colors. Markus did an amazing job recreating each of them in a unique building style using bricks, hoses, slopes, and tiles of over a dozen different colors. However, the most genius trick of the build is nine sonic screwdrivers right from Doctor Who sets used as crosses on top of the chapels.

And, of course, the cathedral is totally worth checking out from all angles — make sure you visit Markus’ photosream for more high-res pictures!

Flying the unfriendly skies

From his Flickr stream, it’s clear that builder arwen qiea is a Cold War military vehicle buff. It’s an impressive portfolio of (mostly Soviet) tanks, missile carriers and navy vessels from the 50s and 60s. But his gigantic airplanes kind of steal the limelight! Here’s his latest one, a model of the Soviet TU-135, an experimental supersonic bomber from that era.

From that angle, the TU-135 seems almost as sleek as a modern Russian fighter jet. But from a higher vantage point you can see why it was nicknamed the “flying wing”.

So that’s a pretty big plane, right? Nope. THIS is a big plane…

…say hello to the Russian Antonov AN-22, probably the largest turboprop ever built. And the big builds don’t stop there. His version of the Lockheed C5a Galaxy (a heavy transport used by the USAF) is so big it literally eats other LEGO models for breakfast!

And here it is, digesting its meal of tanks and other armaments:

values related to critical thinking

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What Are Critical Thinking Skills and Why Are They Important?

Learn what critical thinking skills are, why they’re important, and how to develop and apply them in your workplace and everyday life.

[Featured Image]: Project Manager, approaching and analyzing the latest project with a team member,

We often use critical thinking skills without even realizing it. When you make a decision, such as which cereal to eat for breakfast, you're using critical thinking to determine the best option for you that day.

Critical thinking is like a muscle that can be exercised and built over time. It is a skill that can help propel your career to new heights. You'll be able to solve workplace issues, use trial and error to troubleshoot ideas, and more.

We'll take you through what it is and some examples so you can begin your journey in mastering this skill.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to interpret, evaluate, and analyze facts and information that are available, to form a judgment or decide if something is right or wrong.

More than just being curious about the world around you, critical thinkers make connections between logical ideas to see the bigger picture. Building your critical thinking skills means being able to advocate your ideas and opinions, present them in a logical fashion, and make decisions for improvement.

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Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking is useful in many areas of your life, including your career. It makes you a well-rounded individual, one who has looked at all of their options and possible solutions before making a choice.

According to the University of the People in California, having critical thinking skills is important because they are [ 1 ]:

Crucial for the economy

Essential for improving language and presentation skills

Very helpful in promoting creativity

Important for self-reflection

The basis of science and democracy

Critical thinking skills are used every day in a myriad of ways and can be applied to situations such as a CEO approaching a group project or a nurse deciding in which order to treat their patients.

Examples of common critical thinking skills

Critical thinking skills differ from individual to individual and are utilized in various ways. Examples of common critical thinking skills include:

Identification of biases: Identifying biases means knowing there are certain people or things that may have an unfair prejudice or influence on the situation at hand. Pointing out these biases helps to remove them from contention when it comes to solving the problem and allows you to see things from a different perspective.

Research: Researching details and facts allows you to be prepared when presenting your information to people. You’ll know exactly what you’re talking about due to the time you’ve spent with the subject material, and you’ll be well-spoken and know what questions to ask to gain more knowledge. When researching, always use credible sources and factual information.

Open-mindedness: Being open-minded when having a conversation or participating in a group activity is crucial to success. Dismissing someone else’s ideas before you’ve heard them will inhibit you from progressing to a solution, and will often create animosity. If you truly want to solve a problem, you need to be willing to hear everyone’s opinions and ideas if you want them to hear yours.

Analysis: Analyzing your research will lead to you having a better understanding of the things you’ve heard and read. As a true critical thinker, you’ll want to seek out the truth and get to the source of issues. It’s important to avoid taking things at face value and always dig deeper.

Problem-solving: Problem-solving is perhaps the most important skill that critical thinkers can possess. The ability to solve issues and bounce back from conflict is what helps you succeed, be a leader, and effect change. One way to properly solve problems is to first recognize there’s a problem that needs solving. By determining the issue at hand, you can then analyze it and come up with several potential solutions.

How to develop critical thinking skills

You can develop critical thinking skills every day if you approach problems in a logical manner. Here are a few ways you can start your path to improvement:

1. Ask questions.

Be inquisitive about everything. Maintain a neutral perspective and develop a natural curiosity, so you can ask questions that develop your understanding of the situation or task at hand. The more details, facts, and information you have, the better informed you are to make decisions.

2. Practice active listening.

Utilize active listening techniques, which are founded in empathy, to really listen to what the other person is saying. Critical thinking, in part, is the cognitive process of reading the situation: the words coming out of their mouth, their body language, their reactions to your own words. Then, you might paraphrase to clarify what they're saying, so both of you agree you're on the same page.

3. Develop your logic and reasoning.

This is perhaps a more abstract task that requires practice and long-term development. However, think of a schoolteacher assessing the classroom to determine how to energize the lesson. There's options such as playing a game, watching a video, or challenging the students with a reward system. Using logic, you might decide that the reward system will take up too much time and is not an immediate fix. A video is not exactly relevant at this time. So, the teacher decides to play a simple word association game.

Scenarios like this happen every day, so next time, you can be more aware of what will work and what won't. Over time, developing your logic and reasoning will strengthen your critical thinking skills.

Learn tips and tricks on how to become a better critical thinker and problem solver through online courses from notable educational institutions on Coursera. Start with Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking from Duke University or Mindware: Critical Thinking for the Information Age from the University of Michigan.

Article sources

University of the People, “ Why is Critical Thinking Important?: A Survival Guide , https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-critical-thinking-important/.” Accessed May 18, 2023.

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What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between ideas. Critical thinking has been the subject of much debate and thought since the time of early Greek philosophers such as Plato and Socrates and has continued to be a subject of discussion into the modern age, for example the ability to recognise fake news .

Critical thinking might be described as the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.

In essence, critical thinking requires you to use your ability to reason. It is about being an active learner rather than a passive recipient of information.

Critical thinkers rigorously question ideas and assumptions rather than accepting them at face value. They will always seek to determine whether the ideas, arguments and findings represent the entire picture and are open to finding that they do not.

Critical thinkers will identify, analyse and solve problems systematically rather than by intuition or instinct.

Someone with critical thinking skills can:

Understand the links between ideas.

Determine the importance and relevance of arguments and ideas.

Recognise, build and appraise arguments.

Identify inconsistencies and errors in reasoning.

Approach problems in a consistent and systematic way.

Reflect on the justification of their own assumptions, beliefs and values.

Critical thinking is thinking about things in certain ways so as to arrive at the best possible solution in the circumstances that the thinker is aware of. In more everyday language, it is a way of thinking about whatever is presently occupying your mind so that you come to the best possible conclusion.

Critical Thinking is:

A way of thinking about particular things at a particular time; it is not the accumulation of facts and knowledge or something that you can learn once and then use in that form forever, such as the nine times table you learn and use in school.

The Skills We Need for Critical Thinking

The skills that we need in order to be able to think critically are varied and include observation, analysis, interpretation, reflection, evaluation, inference, explanation, problem solving, and decision making.

Specifically we need to be able to:

Think about a topic or issue in an objective and critical way.

Identify the different arguments there are in relation to a particular issue.

Evaluate a point of view to determine how strong or valid it is.

Recognise any weaknesses or negative points that there are in the evidence or argument.

Notice what implications there might be behind a statement or argument.

Provide structured reasoning and support for an argument that we wish to make.

The Critical Thinking Process

You should be aware that none of us think critically all the time.

Sometimes we think in almost any way but critically, for example when our self-control is affected by anger, grief or joy or when we are feeling just plain ‘bloody minded’.

On the other hand, the good news is that, since our critical thinking ability varies according to our current mindset, most of the time we can learn to improve our critical thinking ability by developing certain routine activities and applying them to all problems that present themselves.

Once you understand the theory of critical thinking, improving your critical thinking skills takes persistence and practice.

Try this simple exercise to help you to start thinking critically.

Think of something that someone has recently told you. Then ask yourself the following questions:

Who said it?

Someone you know? Someone in a position of authority or power? Does it matter who told you this?

What did they say?

Did they give facts or opinions? Did they provide all the facts? Did they leave anything out?

Where did they say it?

Was it in public or in private? Did other people have a chance to respond an provide an alternative account?

When did they say it?

Was it before, during or after an important event? Is timing important?

Why did they say it?

Did they explain the reasoning behind their opinion? Were they trying to make someone look good or bad?

How did they say it?

Were they happy or sad, angry or indifferent? Did they write it or say it? Could you understand what was said?

What are you Aiming to Achieve?

One of the most important aspects of critical thinking is to decide what you are aiming to achieve and then make a decision based on a range of possibilities.

Once you have clarified that aim for yourself you should use it as the starting point in all future situations requiring thought and, possibly, further decision making. Where needed, make your workmates, family or those around you aware of your intention to pursue this goal. You must then discipline yourself to keep on track until changing circumstances mean you have to revisit the start of the decision making process.

However, there are things that get in the way of simple decision making. We all carry with us a range of likes and dislikes, learnt behaviours and personal preferences developed throughout our lives; they are the hallmarks of being human. A major contribution to ensuring we think critically is to be aware of these personal characteristics, preferences and biases and make allowance for them when considering possible next steps, whether they are at the pre-action consideration stage or as part of a rethink caused by unexpected or unforeseen impediments to continued progress.

The more clearly we are aware of ourselves, our strengths and weaknesses, the more likely our critical thinking will be productive.

The Benefit of Foresight

Perhaps the most important element of thinking critically is foresight.

Almost all decisions we make and implement don’t prove disastrous if we find reasons to abandon them. However, our decision making will be infinitely better and more likely to lead to success if, when we reach a tentative conclusion, we pause and consider the impact on the people and activities around us.

The elements needing consideration are generally numerous and varied. In many cases, consideration of one element from a different perspective will reveal potential dangers in pursuing our decision.

For instance, moving a business activity to a new location may improve potential output considerably but it may also lead to the loss of skilled workers if the distance moved is too great. Which of these is the more important consideration? Is there some way of lessening the conflict?

These are the sort of problems that may arise from incomplete critical thinking, a demonstration perhaps of the critical importance of good critical thinking.

In Summary:

Critical thinking is aimed at achieving the best possible outcomes in any situation. In order to achieve this it must involve gathering and evaluating information from as many different sources possible.

Critical thinking requires a clear, often uncomfortable, assessment of your personal strengths, weaknesses and preferences and their possible impact on decisions you may make.

Critical thinking requires the development and use of foresight as far as this is possible. As Doris Day sang, “the future’s not ours to see”.

Implementing the decisions made arising from critical thinking must take into account an assessment of possible outcomes and ways of avoiding potentially negative outcomes, or at least lessening their impact.

Critical thinking involves reviewing the results of the application of decisions made and implementing change where possible.

It might be thought that we are overextending our demands on critical thinking in expecting that it can help to construct focused meaning rather than examining the information given and the knowledge we have acquired to see if we can, if necessary, construct a meaning that will be acceptable and useful.

After all, almost no information we have available to us, either externally or internally, carries any guarantee of its life or appropriateness. Neat step-by-step instructions may provide some sort of trellis on which our basic understanding of critical thinking can blossom but it doesn’t and cannot provide any assurance of certainty, utility or longevity.

Continue to: Critical Thinking and Fake News Critical Reading

See also: Analytical Skills Understanding and Addressing Conspiracy Theories Introduction to Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

Defining Critical Thinking

A Brief History of the Idea of Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking: Basic Questions & Answers
Our Conception of Critical Thinking
Sumner’s Definition of Critical Thinking
Research in Critical Thinking
Critical Societies: Thoughts from the Past

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What do lawyers, accountants, teachers, and doctors all have in common?

Students in the School of Literatures, Languages, Cultures, and Linguistics give a presentation in a classroom in front of a screen

The Oxford English Dictionary defines critical thinking as “The objective, systematic, and rational analysis and evaluation of factual evidence in order to form a judgment on a subject, issue, etc.” Critical thinking involves the use of logic and reasoning to evaluate available facts and/or evidence to come to a conclusion about a certain subject or topic. We use critical thinking every day, from decision-making to problem-solving, in addition to thinking critically in an academic context!

Why is critical thinking important for academic success?

You may be asking “why is critical thinking important for students?” Critical thinking appears in a diverse set of disciplines and impacts students’ learning every day, regardless of major.

Critical thinking skills are often associated with the value of studying the humanities. In majors such as English, students will be presented with a certain text—whether it’s a novel, short story, essay, or even film—and will have to use textual evidence to make an argument and then defend their argument about what they’ve read. However, the importance of critical thinking does not only apply to the humanities. In the social sciences, an economics major , for example, will use what they’ve learned to figure out solutions to issues as varied as land and other natural resource use, to how much people should work, to how to develop human capital through education. Problem-solving and critical thinking go hand in hand. Biology is a popular major within LAS, and graduates of the biology program often pursue careers in the medical sciences. Doctors use critical thinking every day, tapping into the knowledge they acquired from studying the biological sciences to diagnose and treat different diseases and ailments.

Students in the College of LAS take many courses that require critical thinking before they graduate. You may be asked in an Economics class to use statistical data analysis to evaluate the impact on home improvement spending when the Fed increases interest rates (read more about real-world experience with Datathon ). If you’ve ever been asked “How often do you think about the Roman Empire?”, you may find yourself thinking about the Roman Empire more than you thought—maybe in an English course, where you’ll use text from Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra to make an argument about Roman imperial desire. No matter what the context is, critical thinking will be involved in your academic life and can take form in many different ways.

The benefits of critical thinking in everyday life

Building better communication.

One of the most important life skills that students learn as early as elementary school is how to give a presentation. Many classes require students to give presentations, because being well-spoken is a key skill in effective communication. This is where critical thinking benefits come into play: using the skills you’ve learned, you’ll be able to gather the information needed for your presentation, narrow down what information is most relevant, and communicate it in an engaging way.

Typically, the first step in creating a presentation is choosing a topic. For example, your professor might assign a presentation on the Gilded Age and provide a list of figures from the 1870s—1890s to choose from. You’ll use your critical thinking skills to narrow down your choices. You may ask yourself:

What figure am I most familiar with?
Who am I most interested in?
Will I have to do additional research?

After choosing your topic, your professor will usually ask a guiding question to help you form a thesis: an argument that is backed up with evidence. Critical thinking benefits this process by allowing you to focus on the information that is most relevant in support of your argument. By focusing on the strongest evidence, you will communicate your thesis clearly.

Finally, once you’ve finished gathering information, you will begin putting your presentation together. Creating a presentation requires a balance of text and visuals. Graphs and tables are popular visuals in STEM-based projects, but digital images and graphics are effective as well. Critical thinking benefits this process because the right images and visuals create a more dynamic experience for the audience, giving them the opportunity to engage with the material.

Presentation skills go beyond the classroom. Students at the University of Illinois will often participate in summer internships to get professional experience before graduation. Many summer interns are required to present about their experience and what they learned at the end of the internship. Jobs frequently also require employees to create presentations of some kind—whether it’s an advertising pitch to win an account from a potential client, or quarterly reporting, giving a presentation is a life skill that directly relates to critical thinking.

Fostering independence and confidence

An important life skill many people start learning as college students and then finessing once they enter the “adult world” is how to budget. There will be many different expenses to keep track of, including rent, bills, car payments, and groceries, just to name a few! After developing your critical thinking skills, you’ll put them to use to consider your salary and budget your expenses accordingly. Here’s an example:

You earn a salary of $75,000 a year. Assume all amounts are before taxes.
1,800 x 12 = 21,600
75,000 – 21,600 = 53,400
This leaves you with $53,400
320 x 12 = 3,840 a year
53,400-3,840= 49,560
726 x 12 = 8,712
49,560 – 8,712= 40,848
You’re left with $40,848 for miscellaneous expenses. You use your critical thinking skills to decide what to do with your $40,848. You think ahead towards your retirement and decide to put $500 a month into a Roth IRA, leaving $34,848. Since you love coffee, you try to figure out if you can afford a daily coffee run. On average, a cup of coffee will cost you $7. 7 x 365 = $2,555 a year for coffee. 34,848 – 2,555 = 32,293
You have $32,293 left. You will use your critical thinking skills to figure out how much you would want to put into savings, how much you want to save to treat yourself from time to time, and how much you want to put aside for emergency funds. With the benefits of critical thinking, you will be well-equipped to budget your lifestyle once you enter the working world.

Enhancing decision-making skills

Choosing the right university for you.

One of the biggest decisions you’ll make in your life is what college or university to go to. There are many factors to consider when making this decision, and critical thinking importance will come into play when determining these factors.

Many high school seniors apply to colleges with the hope of being accepted into a certain program, whether it’s biology, psychology, political science, English, or something else entirely. Some students apply with certain schools in mind due to overall rankings. Students also consider the campus a school is set in. While some universities such as the University of Illinois are nestled within college towns, New York University is right in Manhattan, in a big city setting. Some students dream of going to large universities, and other students prefer smaller schools. The diversity of a university’s student body is also a key consideration. For many 17- and 18-year-olds, college is a time to meet peers from diverse racial and socio-economic backgrounds and learn about life experiences different than one’s own.

With all these factors in mind, you’ll use critical thinking to decide which are most important to you—and which school is the right fit for you.

Develop your critical thinking skills at the University of Illinois

At the University of Illinois, not only will you learn how to think critically, but you will put critical thinking into practice. In the College of LAS, you can choose from 70+ majors where you will learn the importance and benefits of critical thinking skills. The College of Liberal Arts & Sciences at U of I offers a wide range of undergraduate and graduate programs in life, physical, and mathematical sciences; humanities; and social and behavioral sciences. No matter which program you choose, you will develop critical thinking skills as you go through your courses in the major of your choice. And in those courses, the first question your professors may ask you is, “What is the goal of critical thinking?” You will be able to respond with confidence that the goal of critical thinking is to help shape people into more informed, more thoughtful members of society.

With such a vast representation of disciplines, an education in the College of LAS will prepare you for a career where you will apply critical thinking skills to real life, both in and outside of the classroom, from your undergraduate experience to your professional career. If you’re interested in becoming a part of a diverse set of students and developing skills for lifelong success, apply to LAS today!

Read more first-hand stories from our amazing students at the LAS Insider blog .

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Building Your Team’s Critical Thinking Skills for Success

August 15, 2023
Teamwork & Collaboration

In today’s complex and rapidly changing world, the ability to think critically is crucial for individuals and teams seeking success. Like a sturdy foundation, critical thinking skills provide the necessary support and structure for problem-solving, decision-making, and innovation. However, the cultivation of these skills often falls short in educational and professional settings. This article explores the importance of building critical thinking skills and offers methods for their development, along with the benefits that can be reaped. By empowering teams with critical thinking, they can navigate challenges with agility and achieve desired outcomes.

Table of Contents

Key Takeaways

Critical thinking skills are highly valued in job candidates and are essential for problem-solving and innovation.
Educational institutions and employers often do not adequately develop critical thinking skills.
Lack of critical thinking skills can lead to poor decision-making and decreased productivity and efficiency.
To develop critical thinking skills in your team, provide specific instruction and guidance, offer training programs and resources, encourage open-mindedness, and foster a culture that values and rewards critical thinking.

The Importance of Critical Thinking Skills for Success

The importance of critical thinking skills for success is evident in the improved decision-making abilities, enhanced creativity and innovation, increased efficiency and productivity, better communication and collaboration within teams, and adaptability and resilience in the face of challenges that it brings. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in problem-solving and decision-making processes, as it enables individuals to analyze situations, evaluate options, and make informed choices. It helps in identifying biases, assumptions, and fallacies that may hinder effective problem-solving. To foster critical thinking in the workplace, organizations can implement strategies such as providing specific instruction and guidance, offering training programs, encouraging open-mindedness, fostering a culture that values and rewards critical thinking, and providing opportunities for practice and application of critical thinking skills. By developing these skills, individuals can enhance their problem-solving abilities and contribute to the overall success of the organization.

Understanding the Definition and Components of Critical Thinking

Execution, one of the measurable phases of critical thinking, involves the effective execution of tasks. Understanding critical thinking assessment is crucial in evaluating an individual’s ability to execute tasks and perform well in critical thinking. Bloom’s Taxonomy plays a significant role in critical thinking by providing a framework for understanding the different levels of thinking and the cognitive processes involved. It helps in assessing and developing critical thinking skills by categorizing thinking into six levels, ranging from basic knowledge to higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and creation. By using Bloom’s Taxonomy, educators and evaluators can assess the depth and complexity of critical thinking skills and identify areas for improvement. Incorporating Bloom’s Taxonomy into critical thinking assessment can guide the development of effective instructional strategies and promote higher-level cognitive thinking.

The Role of Execution in Developing Critical Thinking Skills

One of the measurable phases of critical thinking, execution, plays a crucial role in the development and enhancement of critical thinking skills. Execution refers to the ability to carry out tasks effectively. In the context of critical thinking, execution involves the application of problem-solving strategies and the implementation of plans or actions to solve a given problem or achieve a specific goal. Effective execution requires individuals to apply their analytical thinking, evaluate potential solutions, and make informed decisions. The impact of critical thinking on problem-solving is significant, as it enables individuals to approach problems systematically, consider multiple perspectives, and generate innovative solutions. By honing their execution skills, individuals can improve their problem-solving abilities and enhance their overall critical thinking prowess.

The Power of Synthesis in Critical Thinking

Synthesis, a fundamental component of critical thinking, involves the integration and combination of information to generate new perspectives and ideas. In problem-solving, synthesis plays a crucial role in developing critical thinking in the workplace.

Integration of Information: Synthesis requires the ability to gather and analyze information from various sources, such as research studies, reports, and expert opinions. By integrating this information, individuals can gain a comprehensive understanding of the problem at hand.

Generation of New Perspectives: Through synthesis, individuals can go beyond the surface-level understanding of a problem and generate new perspectives and ideas. This creative process allows for innovative solutions and approaches to problem-solving.

Problem-Solving Efficiency: Synthesis improves problem-solving efficiency by enabling individuals to identify patterns, connections, and relationships between different pieces of information. This holistic view helps in identifying the most appropriate course of action and avoiding potential pitfalls or biases.

Methods for Providing Instruction and Guidance in Critical Thinking

To effectively provide instruction and guidance in critical thinking, it is important to implement specific training programs and resources focused on the development of this skill. Methods for critical thinking instruction include providing specific instruction and guidance to team members, offering training programs and resources, encouraging open-mindedness and exploration of different perspectives, fostering a culture that values and rewards critical thinking, and providing opportunities for practice and application of critical thinking skills. These methods have numerous benefits for individuals and organizations. Developing critical thinking skills leads to improved decision-making and problem-solving abilities, enhanced creativity and innovation, increased efficiency and productivity, better communication and collaboration within teams, and adaptability and resilience in the face of challenges. Therefore, organizations should prioritize the implementation of these methods to cultivate critical thinking skills and reap the benefits of their development.

Training Programs and Resources for Developing Critical Thinking

Training programs and resources are essential for the development of critical thinking skills in individuals and organizations. These programs provide structured and systematic approaches to enhance critical thinking abilities. To measure the effectiveness of training programs in developing critical thinking skills, the following methods can be employed:

Pre- and post-training assessments: Before and after the training, individuals can be evaluated using standardized tests or assessments specifically designed to measure critical thinking skills. This allows for a quantitative comparison of skill improvement.

Performance evaluations: Observing participants’ performance in real-world scenarios can provide insights into their critical thinking abilities. Evaluating decision-making processes, problem-solving strategies, and the application of logical reasoning can help determine the effectiveness of the training.

Feedback and self-reflection: Gathering feedback from participants regarding their perception of their own critical thinking skills can provide qualitative data on the impact of the training. Self-reflection exercises can also help individuals identify areas for improvement and gauge their progress over time.

Encouraging Open-Mindedness and Exploring Different Perspectives

Encouraging open-mindedness and exploring different perspectives is a valuable approach in fostering critical thinking abilities. By exposing individuals to diverse viewpoints, they are prompted to challenge their own assumptions and beliefs, leading to a deeper understanding of complex issues. This process allows for the exploration of various angles and considerations, ultimately enhancing critical thinking skills. Creating a fostering critical thinking environment necessitates creating opportunities for individuals to engage in dialogue and debate, where they can listen to and learn from differing opinions. Additionally, it involves promoting a culture of respect and tolerance for diverse perspectives, encouraging individuals to actively seek out alternative viewpoints. By incorporating these practices, organizations and educational institutions can cultivate a critical thinking environment that nurtures the development of well-rounded individuals capable of thoughtful analysis and decision-making.

Creating a Culture That Values and Rewards Critical Thinking

Creating a culture that values and rewards critical thinking involves establishing systems and structures within an organization or educational institution that recognize and acknowledge individuals who demonstrate strong analytical and problem-solving capabilities. To promote critical thinking, organizations can implement the following strategies:

Implementing critical thinking in performance evaluations: Incorporating criteria that assess an individual’s ability to think critically and make sound judgments can incentivize employees to develop and display these skills. This can be done by including specific performance indicators related to critical thinking in the evaluation process.

Promoting critical thinking in team meetings: Encouraging open discussions and debates during team meetings can foster an environment where critical thinking is valued. By posing thought-provoking questions, encouraging different perspectives, and challenging assumptions, teams can collectively engage in critical thinking and generate innovative solutions.

Offering training and development opportunities: Providing training programs and resources focused on critical thinking can equip individuals with the necessary knowledge and skills to think critically. This can include workshops, seminars, or online courses that teach techniques and strategies for effective critical thinking.

Opportunities for Practice and Application of Critical Thinking Skills

One effective method to enhance critical thinking abilities involves providing individuals with practical scenarios and real-life situations that require the application of analytical and problem-solving skills. By offering practice opportunities that simulate real-world application, individuals can develop and refine their critical thinking skills. The utilization of practical scenarios allows individuals to engage in active learning, where they can apply their knowledge and skills to solve complex problems and make informed decisions. Through these practice opportunities, individuals are exposed to a range of challenges and are encouraged to think critically, analyze information, evaluate options, and generate innovative solutions. This hands-on approach to developing critical thinking skills not only enhances individuals’ ability to solve problems effectively, but also prepares them for real-world situations where critical thinking is essential. Ultimately, the integration of practical scenarios provides individuals with valuable experiences that strengthen their critical thinking abilities.

The Benefits of Improved Decision-Making and Problem-Solving

The previous subtopic discussed the opportunities for practice and application of critical thinking skills. Now, let’s delve into the benefits of improved decision-making and problem-solving that result from developing these skills.

Enhanced problem-solving techniques: Critical thinking enables individuals to analyze complex problems, identify underlying issues, and determine the most effective solutions. By developing critical thinking skills, teams can approach problems with a systematic and logical mindset, leading to more efficient and effective problem-solving processes.

Improved decision-making: Critical thinking plays a crucial role in decision-making by enabling individuals to evaluate information objectively, consider various perspectives, and weigh the pros and cons of different options. This helps teams make well-informed decisions that are based on evidence and reasoning rather than biases or gut feelings.

Increased effectiveness in complex situations: Critical thinking empowers individuals to navigate complex and ambiguous situations by providing them with the ability to analyze information, assess potential risks, and make sound judgments. This enhances their ability to adapt and respond effectively in dynamic environments.

Overall, the impact of critical thinking on decision-making and problem-solving is significant. By improving these skills, teams can make better decisions, solve problems more effectively, and ultimately achieve higher levels of success.

Enhancing Creativity and Innovation Through Critical Thinking

Enhancing creativity and innovation can be achieved by developing critical thinking abilities through the application of analytical and problem-solving techniques. Critical thinking in the workplace is crucial for fostering a culture of innovation. By honing critical thinking skills, individuals are able to approach challenges and problems with a more analytical mindset, allowing for the generation of new and creative ideas. This ability to think critically enables individuals to analyze situations from multiple perspectives, identify potential opportunities, and develop innovative solutions. Moreover, critical thinking encourages individuals to question assumptions, challenge existing norms, and explore alternative possibilities. By fostering a culture that values and rewards critical thinking, organizations can create an environment that encourages the generation of new ideas and supports innovation. Ultimately, enhancing critical thinking in the workplace is essential for promoting creativity and driving innovation forward.

Increasing Efficiency and Productivity With Critical Thinking

In order to increase efficiency and productivity in team settings, it is crucial to develop critical thinking skills in team meetings and integrate critical thinking into project management. This can be achieved through various strategies:

Encouraging active participation: Team members should be encouraged to actively engage in discussions and contribute their thoughts and ideas. This promotes critical thinking by fostering the exploration of different perspectives and the evaluation of various options.

Facilitating problem-solving exercises: Incorporating problem-solving exercises into team meetings allows members to practice critical thinking skills in a supportive environment. These exercises can involve analyzing complex scenarios, identifying potential solutions, and evaluating the pros and cons of each option.

Providing tools and frameworks: Equipping team members with tools and frameworks for critical thinking, such as decision-making models and problem-solving methodologies, can enhance their ability to think critically and make informed decisions. These resources can serve as a guide for approaching complex tasks and projects in a systematic and analytical manner.

Better Communication and Collaboration Through Critical Thinking

Better communication and collaboration within teams can be achieved by fostering an environment that promotes critical thinking and the exploration of diverse perspectives. When team members are encouraged to think critically, they are more likely to engage in open and meaningful discussions. Critical thinking allows individuals to analyze information, evaluate different viewpoints, and communicate their ideas effectively. By fostering effective collaboration, teams can benefit from the collective intelligence and diverse perspectives of its members. Team members who engage in critical thinking are more likely to actively listen to others, consider alternative solutions, and engage in constructive debates. This can lead to improved teamwork, as individuals are able to work together towards common goals and make informed decisions. In conclusion, improving teamwork through critical thinking and fostering effective collaboration can greatly enhance the overall performance and success of a team.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some common barriers to developing critical thinking skills.

Common barriers to developing critical thinking skills include lack of effective instruction and guidance, absence of training programs and resources, closed-mindedness, and a culture that does not value or reward critical thinking. Strategies for improvement include providing specific instruction, offering training programs, encouraging open-mindedness, fostering a culture of critical thinking, and providing opportunities for practice and application.

How Can Critical Thinking Skills Be Applied in Real-Life Situations Outside of the Workplace?

Applying critical thinking skills in everyday life enhances problem-solving abilities in personal situations. It allows individuals to analyze and evaluate information, consider different perspectives, and make informed decisions, leading to more effective problem-solving and decision-making in various contexts.

Are There Any Potential Drawbacks or Limitations to Relying Heavily on Critical Thinking in Decision-Making?

Potential drawbacks and limitations of relying heavily on critical thinking in decision-making include the possibility of overanalyzing, which can lead to decision paralysis. Additionally, critical thinking may not always account for emotional or intuitive factors that could influence outcomes.

Can Critical Thinking Skills Be Developed and Improved Over Time, or Are They Fixed?

The question of whether critical thinking skills can be developed and improved over time, or if they are fixed, is an important area of inquiry. This topic warrants further investigation to provide a comprehensive understanding of the nature of critical thinking skills.

Are There Any Specific Industries or Job Roles That Prioritize Critical Thinking Skills More Than Others?

Certain industries and job roles prioritize critical thinking skills more than others. For example, professions such as law, medicine, engineering, and finance require individuals to analyze complex information, make informed decisions, and solve problems effectively.

How Are Symbols Related To Critical Thinking?

Symbols play a crucial role in our daily lives, and their significance goes beyond just their aesthetic appeal. From the signs we see on the road to the logos we identify with brands, symbols have become an essential aspect of communication in our society.

But did you know that symbols also have a deep connection with critical thinking? In fact, the use of symbols can help improve our ability to analyze information and make sound judgments. Now the question is: How are symbols related to critical thinking?

Basically, symbols are closely related to critical thinking because they can be used to represent abstract concepts, which can help people think more deeply and critically about a particular topic.

In this blog post, we will explore how symbols are related to critical thinking, and how they can be used to enhance our ability to reason and make informed decisions.

What Does Symbol Mean?

Symbols are representations of ideas, concepts, or objects that convey meaning through an agreed-upon system of visual or linguistic cues. They can take many forms, such as letters, numbers, signs, or images.

In critical thinking, symbols are used to represent ideas and arguments. Understanding the meaning behind symbols is essential for analyzing and evaluating the validity and strength of arguments.

Read More: Why Is Critical Thinking So Important For Professional Ethics?

Symbols, which are representations of ideas or objects, play an important role in critical thinking . They allow individuals to communicate complex concepts, organize information, and understand any context. Here, we will explore how symbols are related to critical thinking.

Symbols and Language Development

Symbols are an essential part of language development in children. Children learn language through a combination of gestures, vocalizations, and symbolic representations.

As children develop their vocabulary, they also develop their ability to use symbols to represent concepts. This is an important step in critical thinking as it allows children to organize and communicate their thoughts effectively.

Symbols and Concept Development

Symbols also play a vital role in concept development. Concepts are ideas or mental representations of objects, events, or relationships. Symbols can be used to represent these concepts, making them more accessible and understandable.

For example, a traffic light is a symbol that represents the concept of traffic regulations. The ability to recognize and use symbols to represent concepts is an important aspect of critical thinking.

Symbols and Context

Symbols can also help individuals understand context. Context refers to the circumstances or environment in which something occurs. Symbols can provide clues about the context of a situation, helping individuals to make sense of it.

For example, a red cross is a symbol that is universally recognized as representing medical aid. If someone sees a red cross on a building, they can infer that it is a medical facility. The ability to understand context is crucial in critical thinking, as it allows individuals to make informed decisions.

Symbols and Decision Making

Symbols are also important in decision-making. And Symbols can be used to represent options or choices, allowing individuals to weigh the pros and cons of different decisions.

For instance, a green checkmark is a symbol that represents approval or agreement, while a red X represents disapproval or disagreement. The ability to use symbols to represent options and choices is an essential aspect of critical thinking.

Read Also: Advantages of Positive Thinking that Improve Your Life

Benefits of Using Symbols in Critical Thinking

Using symbols in critical thinking can facilitate the process and improve decision-making abilities. Symbols can help individuals conceptualize complex ideas and convey them efficiently. Below, we’ve illustrated the benefits of using symbols in critical thinking.

Enhances Communication and Language Development

Symbols are an integral part of language and communication systems. Using symbols in critical thinking can help individuals develop and expand their vocabulary. It can also aid in language development and improve language skills, especially in children. By using symbols, children can learn to connect words with their meanings, which can promote effective communication.

Facilitates Conceptualization and Understanding of Complex Ideas

Symbols can represent complex ideas in a simplified form, making it easier to understand and analyze them. Symbols can help individuals visualize abstract concepts, which can aid in comprehension and retention. For instance, using symbols in math can help students understand complex formulas and equations.

Saves Time and Increases Efficiency

Using symbols in critical thinking can help individuals save time and increase efficiency. Symbols can help individuals quickly identify concepts and ideas, which can expedite the decision-making process. For example, using symbols in data visualization can help individuals quickly identify trends and patterns.

Contextualizes Information

Symbols can help individuals contextualize information, which is crucial in critical thinking. Symbols can provide additional context to ideas and concepts, helping individuals understand how they relate to one another. This can help individuals make informed decisions and avoid misunderstandings.

Facilitates Child Development

Using symbols in critical thinking can aid in child development. Symbols can help children learn concepts and ideas more effectively. They can also facilitate communication between children and adults. For example, using symbols in early childhood education can aid in the development of cognitive and language skills.

Strategies for Effective Use of Symbols in Critical Thinking

Symbols refer to any object or image that represents a concept, idea, or emotion. They can include gestures, written language, and visual icons. This article discusses strategies for using symbols effectively in critical thinking.

Understanding the Role of Symbols

Symbols can convey complex concepts and ideas quickly and easily, making them useful in a variety of contexts. They can also be used to communicate across different languages and cultures.

Consider the Context

The context in which symbols are used can greatly affect their meaning. So, consider the context in which a symbol is being used when interpreting its meaning. For example, the same symbol may have different meanings in different cultures.

Understand the Concept Being Represented

To use symbols effectively in critical thinking, have a clear understanding of the concept being represented. This understanding can help ensure that the symbol accurately conveys the intended meaning.

Use Symbols as a Tool for Representation

Symbols can be used as a tool for representation, allowing complex concepts and ideas to be communicated in a concise and easily understandable way. They can also be used to help organize and structure information.

Consider the Developmental Stage of the Child

When working with children, consider their developmental stage when using symbols. Younger children may not have the same level of symbolic understanding as older children, so it may be necessary to use simpler symbols or gestures to convey a concept.

Provide Opportunities for Symbolic Play

Symbolic play can help children develop their symbolic understanding and critical thinking skills. Providing opportunities for children to engage in symbolic play can help promote their development in these areas.

What Part Of The Brain Controls Critical Thinking?

How To Teach Critical Thinking In The Workplace?

Final Thoughts

It may be clear how are symbols related to critical thinking after reading the discussion above. In general, symbols are closely related to critical thinking. Symbols can convey complex ideas and emotions in a concise, visual form, allowing us to identify and interpret them in a way that words cannot.

This ability to break down complex ideas into easily recognizable forms makes symbols an invaluable tool in critical thinking. Symbols can allow us to analyze and interpret information quickly and accurately, as well as to make connections between seemingly unrelated concepts.

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Rethinking critical thinking for social justice: Introducing a new measure of critical being that emphasizes thought, reflection, and action

Original Paper
Published: 30 September 2022
Volume 2 , article number 218 , ( 2022 )

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K. C. Culver ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7929-2680 1 ,
Benjamin Selznick 1 , 2 &
Teniell L. Trolian 1 , 3

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While postsecondary stakeholders agree that critical thinking is an essential college outcome, it is challenging to measure this outcome using rigorous and equitable theoretically derived instruments. Assessment of critical thinking in the US tends to focus on argument and evaluation, privileging individualistic, capitalist values. This study introduces a measure of critical being which expands notions of critical thinking beyond these cognitive skills to include affective and action-oriented lines of development. Close attention is paid to the creation of this measure, which utilized items from the Wabash National Study—a longitudinal study of over 17,000 undergraduates at 49 institutions. Analyses include item response techniques, confirmatory factor analysis, and robust validity testing. In addition to describing the development and validation of a critical being scale, we examine identity-based equity in students’ scores on critical being compared to their scores on a critical thinking test. Results provide support for use of this new measure and indicate its potential to improve equity in measuring this crucial college outcome. Discussion and implications for use are offered.

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Culver, K.C., Selznick, B. & Trolian, T.L. Rethinking critical thinking for social justice: Introducing a new measure of critical being that emphasizes thought, reflection, and action. SN Soc Sci 2 , 218 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-022-00531-4

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Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.

2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples

2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.

Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as

active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)

and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.

Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment. Political and business leaders endorse its importance.

For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .

2. Examples and Non-Examples

Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.

Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.

Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o'clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68-69; 1933: 91-92)

Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.

“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.

“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot's position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Morevoer, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69-70; 1933: 92-93)

Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).

Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.

Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).

Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).

Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).

Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).

Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).

Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond line from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.

Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.

Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as

a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)

A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.

Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.

What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as

a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)

Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.

It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.

One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.

If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on the subsequent emotive response (Siegel 1988).

In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).

Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.

Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:

suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)

The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).

The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).

Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.

If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.

Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in frequency in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the frequency of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.

By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.

Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.

Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.

Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)

8. Critical Thinking Dispositions

Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).

On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.

A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.

Critical thinking dispositions can usefully be divided into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started) (Facione 1990a: 25). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.

Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.

Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking.
Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.

Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .

Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.

Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).

The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.

Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.

Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.

Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).

Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.

Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.

Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.

Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.

Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.

In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.

We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), and Black (2012).

According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work.

Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.

Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .

What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? Abrami et al. (2015) found that in the experimental and quasi-experimental studies that they analyzed dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.

Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .

12. Controversies

Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.

McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), and Bailin et al. (1999b).

McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.

The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.

It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.

Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:

reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)

A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as

thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)

Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should

be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)

Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.

The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:

Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).

A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.

What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .

As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.

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NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

Hughes RG, editor. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2008 Apr.

Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses.

Chapter 6 clinical reasoning, decisionmaking, and action: thinking critically and clinically.

Patricia Benner ; Ronda G. Hughes ; Molly Sutphen .

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This chapter examines multiple thinking strategies that are needed for high-quality clinical practice. Clinical reasoning and judgment are examined in relation to other modes of thinking used by clinical nurses in providing quality health care to patients that avoids adverse events and patient harm. The clinician’s ability to provide safe, high-quality care can be dependent upon their ability to reason, think, and judge, which can be limited by lack of experience. The expert performance of nurses is dependent upon continual learning and evaluation of performance.

Nursing education has emphasized critical thinking as an essential nursing skill for more than 50 years. 1 The definitions of critical thinking have evolved over the years. There are several key definitions for critical thinking to consider. The American Philosophical Association (APA) defined critical thinking as purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that uses cognitive tools such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations on which judgment is based. 2 A more expansive general definition of critical thinking is

. . . in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. Every clinician must develop rigorous habits of critical thinking, but they cannot escape completely the situatedness and structures of the clinical traditions and practices in which they must make decisions and act quickly in specific clinical situations. 3

There are three key definitions for nursing, which differ slightly. Bittner and Tobin defined critical thinking as being “influenced by knowledge and experience, using strategies such as reflective thinking as a part of learning to identify the issues and opportunities, and holistically synthesize the information in nursing practice” 4 (p. 268). Scheffer and Rubenfeld 5 expanded on the APA definition for nurses through a consensus process, resulting in the following definition:

Critical thinking in nursing is an essential component of professional accountability and quality nursing care. Critical thinkers in nursing exhibit these habits of the mind: confidence, contextual perspective, creativity, flexibility, inquisitiveness, intellectual integrity, intuition, openmindedness, perseverance, and reflection. Critical thinkers in nursing practice the cognitive skills of analyzing, applying standards, discriminating, information seeking, logical reasoning, predicting, and transforming knowledge 6 (Scheffer & Rubenfeld, p. 357).

The National League for Nursing Accreditation Commission (NLNAC) defined critical thinking as:

the deliberate nonlinear process of collecting, interpreting, analyzing, drawing conclusions about, presenting, and evaluating information that is both factually and belief based. This is demonstrated in nursing by clinical judgment, which includes ethical, diagnostic, and therapeutic dimensions and research 7 (p. 8).

These concepts are furthered by the American Association of Colleges of Nurses’ definition of critical thinking in their Essentials of Baccalaureate Nursing :

Critical thinking underlies independent and interdependent decision making. Critical thinking includes questioning, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, inference, inductive and deductive reasoning, intuition, application, and creativity 8 (p. 9).

Course work or ethical experiences should provide the graduate with the knowledge and skills to:

Use nursing and other appropriate theories and models, and an appropriate ethical framework;
Apply research-based knowledge from nursing and the sciences as the basis for practice;
Use clinical judgment and decision-making skills;
Engage in self-reflective and collegial dialogue about professional practice;
Evaluate nursing care outcomes through the acquisition of data and the questioning of inconsistencies, allowing for the revision of actions and goals;
Engage in creative problem solving 8 (p. 10).

Taken together, these definitions of critical thinking set forth the scope and key elements of thought processes involved in providing clinical care. Exactly how critical thinking is defined will influence how it is taught and to what standard of care nurses will be held accountable.

Professional and regulatory bodies in nursing education have required that critical thinking be central to all nursing curricula, but they have not adequately distinguished critical reflection from ethical, clinical, or even creative thinking for decisionmaking or actions required by the clinician. Other essential modes of thought such as clinical reasoning, evaluation of evidence, creative thinking, or the application of well-established standards of practice—all distinct from critical reflection—have been subsumed under the rubric of critical thinking. In the nursing education literature, clinical reasoning and judgment are often conflated with critical thinking. The accrediting bodies and nursing scholars have included decisionmaking and action-oriented, practical, ethical, and clinical reasoning in the rubric of critical reflection and thinking. One might say that this harmless semantic confusion is corrected by actual practices, except that students need to understand the distinctions between critical reflection and clinical reasoning, and they need to learn to discern when each is better suited, just as students need to also engage in applying standards, evidence-based practices, and creative thinking.

The growing body of research, patient acuity, and complexity of care demand higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking involves the application of knowledge and experience to identify patient problems and to direct clinical judgments and actions that result in positive patient outcomes. These skills can be cultivated by educators who display the virtues of critical thinking, including independence of thought, intellectual curiosity, courage, humility, empathy, integrity, perseverance, and fair-mindedness. 9

The process of critical thinking is stimulated by integrating the essential knowledge, experiences, and clinical reasoning that support professional practice. The emerging paradigm for clinical thinking and cognition is that it is social and dialogical rather than monological and individual. 10–12 Clinicians pool their wisdom and multiple perspectives, yet some clinical knowledge can be demonstrated only in the situation (e.g., how to suction an extremely fragile patient whose oxygen saturations sink too low). Early warnings of problematic situations are made possible by clinicians comparing their observations to that of other providers. Clinicians form practice communities that create styles of practice, including ways of doing things, communication styles and mechanisms, and shared expectations about performance and expertise of team members.

By holding up critical thinking as a large umbrella for different modes of thinking, students can easily misconstrue the logic and purposes of different modes of thinking. Clinicians and scientists alike need multiple thinking strategies, such as critical thinking, clinical judgment, diagnostic reasoning, deliberative rationality, scientific reasoning, dialogue, argument, creative thinking, and so on. In particular, clinicians need forethought and an ongoing grasp of a patient’s health status and care needs trajectory, which requires an assessment of their own clarity and understanding of the situation at hand, critical reflection, critical reasoning, and clinical judgment.

Critical Reflection, Critical Reasoning, and Judgment

Critical reflection requires that the thinker examine the underlying assumptions and radically question or doubt the validity of arguments, assertions, and even facts of the case. Critical reflective skills are essential for clinicians; however, these skills are not sufficient for the clinician who must decide how to act in particular situations and avoid patient injury. For example, in everyday practice, clinicians cannot afford to critically reflect on the well-established tenets of “normal” or “typical” human circulatory systems when trying to figure out a particular patient’s alterations from that typical, well-grounded understanding that has existed since Harvey’s work in 1628. 13 Yet critical reflection can generate new scientifically based ideas. For example, there is a lack of adequate research on the differences between women’s and men’s circulatory systems and the typical pathophysiology related to heart attacks. Available research is based upon multiple, taken-for-granted starting points about the general nature of the circulatory system. As such, critical reflection may not provide what is needed for a clinician to act in a situation. This idea can be considered reasonable since critical reflective thinking is not sufficient for good clinical reasoning and judgment. The clinician’s development of skillful critical reflection depends upon being taught what to pay attention to, and thus gaining a sense of salience that informs the powers of perceptual grasp. The powers of noticing or perceptual grasp depend upon noticing what is salient and the capacity to respond to the situation.

Critical reflection is a crucial professional skill, but it is not the only reasoning skill or logic clinicians require. The ability to think critically uses reflection, induction, deduction, analysis, challenging assumptions, and evaluation of data and information to guide decisionmaking. 9 , 14 , 15 Critical reasoning is a process whereby knowledge and experience are applied in considering multiple possibilities to achieve the desired goals, 16 while considering the patient’s situation. 14 It is a process where both inductive and deductive cognitive skills are used. 17 Sometimes clinical reasoning is presented as a form of evaluating scientific knowledge, sometimes even as a form of scientific reasoning. Critical thinking is inherent in making sound clinical reasoning. 18

An essential point of tension and confusion exists in practice traditions such as nursing and medicine when clinical reasoning and critical reflection become entangled, because the clinician must have some established bases that are not questioned when engaging in clinical decisions and actions, such as standing orders. The clinician must act in the particular situation and time with the best clinical and scientific knowledge available. The clinician cannot afford to indulge in either ritualistic unexamined knowledge or diagnostic or therapeutic nihilism caused by radical doubt, as in critical reflection, because they must find an intelligent and effective way to think and act in particular clinical situations. Critical reflection skills are essential to assist practitioners to rethink outmoded or even wrong-headed approaches to health care, health promotion, and prevention of illness and complications, especially when new evidence is available. Breakdowns in practice, high failure rates in particular therapies, new diseases, new scientific discoveries, and societal changes call for critical reflection about past assumptions and no-longer-tenable beliefs.

Clinical reasoning stands out as a situated, practice-based form of reasoning that requires a background of scientific and technological research-based knowledge about general cases, more so than any particular instance. It also requires practical ability to discern the relevance of the evidence behind general scientific and technical knowledge and how it applies to a particular patient. In dong so, the clinician considers the patient’s particular clinical trajectory, their concerns and preferences, and their particular vulnerabilities (e.g., having multiple comorbidities) and sensitivities to care interventions (e.g., known drug allergies, other conflicting comorbid conditions, incompatible therapies, and past responses to therapies) when forming clinical decisions or conclusions.

Situated in a practice setting, clinical reasoning occurs within social relationships or situations involving patient, family, community, and a team of health care providers. The expert clinician situates themselves within a nexus of relationships, with concerns that are bounded by the situation. Expert clinical reasoning is socially engaged with the relationships and concerns of those who are affected by the caregiving situation, and when certain circumstances are present, the adverse event. Halpern 19 has called excellent clinical ethical reasoning “emotional reasoning” in that the clinicians have emotional access to the patient/family concerns and their understanding of the particular care needs. Expert clinicians also seek an optimal perceptual grasp, one based on understanding and as undistorted as possible, based on an attuned emotional engagement and expert clinical knowledge. 19 , 20

Clergy educators 21 and nursing and medical educators have begun to recognize the wisdom of broadening their narrow vision of rationality beyond simple rational calculation (exemplified by cost-benefit analysis) to reconsider the need for character development—including emotional engagement, perception, habits of thought, and skill acquisition—as essential to the development of expert clinical reasoning, judgment, and action. 10 , 22–24 Practitioners of engineering, law, medicine, and nursing, like the clergy, have to develop a place to stand in their discipline’s tradition of knowledge and science in order to recognize and evaluate salient evidence in the moment. Diagnostic confusion and disciplinary nihilism are both threats to the clinician’s ability to act in particular situations. However, the practice and practitioners will not be self-improving and vital if they cannot engage in critical reflection on what is not of value, what is outmoded, and what does not work. As evidence evolves and expands, so too must clinical thought.

Clinical judgment requires clinical reasoning across time about the particular, and because of the relevance of this immediate historical unfolding, clinical reasoning can be very different from the scientific reasoning used to formulate, conduct, and assess clinical experiments. While scientific reasoning is also socially embedded in a nexus of social relationships and concerns, the goal of detached, critical objectivity used to conduct scientific experiments minimizes the interactive influence of the research on the experiment once it has begun. Scientific research in the natural and clinical sciences typically uses formal criteria to develop “yes” and “no” judgments at prespecified times. The scientist is always situated in past and immediate scientific history, preferring to evaluate static and predetermined points in time (e.g., snapshot reasoning), in contrast to a clinician who must always reason about transitions over time. 25 , 26

Techne and Phronesis

Distinctions between the mere scientific making of things and practice was first explored by Aristotle as distinctions between techne and phronesis. 27 Learning to be a good practitioner requires developing the requisite moral imagination for good practice. If, for example, patients exercise their rights and refuse treatments, practitioners are required to have the moral imagination to understand the probable basis for the patient’s refusal. For example, was the refusal based upon catastrophic thinking, unrealistic fears, misunderstanding, or even clinical depression?

Techne, as defined by Aristotle, encompasses the notion of formation of character and habitus 28 as embodied beings. In Aristotle’s terms, techne refers to the making of things or producing outcomes. 11 Joseph Dunne defines techne as “the activity of producing outcomes,” and it “is governed by a means-ends rationality where the maker or producer governs the thing or outcomes produced or made through gaining mastery over the means of producing the outcomes, to the point of being able to separate means and ends” 11 (p. 54). While some aspects of medical and nursing practice fall into the category of techne, much of nursing and medical practice falls outside means-ends rationality and must be governed by concern for doing good or what is best for the patient in particular circumstances, where being in a relationship and discerning particular human concerns at stake guide action.

Phronesis, in contrast to techne, includes reasoning about the particular, across time, through changes or transitions in the patient’s and/or the clinician’s understanding. As noted by Dunne, phronesis is “characterized at least as much by a perceptiveness with regard to concrete particulars as by a knowledge of universal principles” 11 (p. 273). This type of practical reasoning often takes the form of puzzle solving or the evaluation of immediate past “hot” history of the patient’s situation. Such a particular clinical situation is necessarily particular, even though many commonalities and similarities with other disease syndromes can be recognized through signs and symptoms and laboratory tests. 11 , 29 , 30 Pointing to knowledge embedded in a practice makes no claim for infallibility or “correctness.” Individual practitioners can be mistaken in their judgments because practices such as medicine and nursing are inherently underdetermined. 31

While phronetic knowledge must remain open to correction and improvement, real events, and consequences, it cannot consistently transcend the institutional setting’s capacities and supports for good practice. Phronesis is also dependent on ongoing experiential learning of the practitioner, where knowledge is refined, corrected, or refuted. The Western tradition, with the notable exception of Aristotle, valued knowledge that could be made universal and devalued practical know-how and experiential learning. Descartes codified this preference for formal logic and rational calculation.

Aristotle recognized that when knowledge is underdetermined, changeable, and particular, it cannot be turned into the universal or standardized. It must be perceived, discerned, and judged, all of which require experiential learning. In nursing and medicine, perceptual acuity in physical assessment and clinical judgment (i.e., reasoning across time about changes in the particular patient or the clinician’s understanding of the patient’s condition) fall into the Greek Aristotelian category of phronesis. Dewey 32 sought to rescue knowledge gained by practical activity in the world. He identified three flaws in the understanding of experience in Greek philosophy: (1) empirical knowing is the opposite of experience with science; (2) practice is reduced to techne or the application of rational thought or technique; and (3) action and skilled know-how are considered temporary and capricious as compared to reason, which the Greeks considered as ultimate reality.

In practice, nursing and medicine require both techne and phronesis. The clinician standardizes and routinizes what can be standardized and routinized, as exemplified by standardized blood pressure measurements, diagnoses, and even charting about the patient’s condition and treatment. 27 Procedural and scientific knowledge can often be formalized and standardized (e.g., practice guidelines), or at least made explicit and certain in practice, except for the necessary timing and adjustments made for particular patients. 11 , 22

Rational calculations available to techne—population trends and statistics, algorithms—are created as decision support structures and can improve accuracy when used as a stance of inquiry in making clinical judgments about particular patients. Aggregated evidence from clinical trials and ongoing working knowledge of pathophysiology, biochemistry, and genomics are essential. In addition, the skills of phronesis (clinical judgment that reasons across time, taking into account the transitions of the particular patient/family/community and transitions in the clinician’s understanding of the clinical situation) will be required for nursing, medicine, or any helping profession.

Thinking Critically

Being able to think critically enables nurses to meet the needs of patients within their context and considering their preferences; meet the needs of patients within the context of uncertainty; consider alternatives, resulting in higher-quality care; 33 and think reflectively, rather than simply accepting statements and performing tasks without significant understanding and evaluation. 34 Skillful practitioners can think critically because they have the following cognitive skills: information seeking, discriminating, analyzing, transforming knowledge, predicating, applying standards, and logical reasoning. 5 One’s ability to think critically can be affected by age, length of education (e.g., an associate vs. a baccalaureate decree in nursing), and completion of philosophy or logic subjects. 35–37 The skillful practitioner can think critically because of having the following characteristics: motivation, perseverance, fair-mindedness, and deliberate and careful attention to thinking. 5 , 9

Thinking critically implies that one has a knowledge base from which to reason and the ability to analyze and evaluate evidence. 38 Knowledge can be manifest by the logic and rational implications of decisionmaking. Clinical decisionmaking is particularly influenced by interpersonal relationships with colleagues, 39 patient conditions, availability of resources, 40 knowledge, and experience. 41 Of these, experience has been shown to enhance nurses’ abilities to make quick decisions 42 and fewer decision errors, 43 support the identification of salient cues, and foster the recognition and action on patterns of information. 44 , 45

Clinicians must develop the character and relational skills that enable them to perceive and understand their patient’s needs and concerns. This requires accurate interpretation of patient data that is relevant to the specific patient and situation. In nursing, this formation of moral agency focuses on learning to be responsible in particular ways demanded by the practice, and to pay attention and intelligently discern changes in patients’ concerns and/or clinical condition that require action on the part of the nurse or other health care workers to avert potential compromises to quality care.

Formation of the clinician’s character, skills, and habits are developed in schools and particular practice communities within a larger practice tradition. As Dunne notes,

A practice is not just a surface on which one can display instant virtuosity. It grounds one in a tradition that has been formed through an elaborate development and that exists at any juncture only in the dispositions (slowly and perhaps painfully acquired) of its recognized practitioners. The question may of course be asked whether there are any such practices in the contemporary world, whether the wholesale encroachment of Technique has not obliterated them—and whether this is not the whole point of MacIntyre’s recipe of withdrawal, as well as of the post-modern story of dispossession 11 (p. 378).

Clearly Dunne is engaging in critical reflection about the conditions for developing character, skills, and habits for skillful and ethical comportment of practitioners, as well as to act as moral agents for patients so that they and their families receive safe, effective, and compassionate care.

Professional socialization or professional values, while necessary, do not adequately address character and skill formation that transform the way the practitioner exists in his or her world, what the practitioner is capable of noticing and responding to, based upon well-established patterns of emotional responses, skills, dispositions to act, and the skills to respond, decide, and act. 46 The need for character and skill formation of the clinician is what makes a practice stand out from a mere technical, repetitious manufacturing process. 11 , 30 , 47

In nursing and medicine, many have questioned whether current health care institutions are designed to promote or hinder enlightened, compassionate practice, or whether they have deteriorated into commercial institutional models that focus primarily on efficiency and profit. MacIntyre points out the links between the ongoing development and improvement of practice traditions and the institutions that house them:

Lack of justice, lack of truthfulness, lack of courage, lack of the relevant intellectual virtues—these corrupt traditions, just as they do those institutions and practices which derive their life from the traditions of which they are the contemporary embodiments. To recognize this is of course also to recognize the existence of an additional virtue, one whose importance is perhaps most obvious when it is least present, the virtue of having an adequate sense of the traditions to which one belongs or which confront one. This virtue is not to be confused with any form of conservative antiquarianism; I am not praising those who choose the conventional conservative role of laudator temporis acti. It is rather the case that an adequate sense of tradition manifests itself in a grasp of those future possibilities which the past has made available to the present. Living traditions, just because they continue a not-yet-completed narrative, confront a future whose determinate and determinable character, so far as it possesses any, derives from the past 30 (p. 207).

It would be impossible to capture all the situated and distributed knowledge outside of actual practice situations and particular patients. Simulations are powerful as teaching tools to enable nurses’ ability to think critically because they give students the opportunity to practice in a simplified environment. However, students can be limited in their inability to convey underdetermined situations where much of the information is based on perceptions of many aspects of the patient and changes that have occurred over time. Simulations cannot have the sub-cultures formed in practice settings that set the social mood of trust, distrust, competency, limited resources, or other forms of situated possibilities.

One of the hallmark studies in nursing providing keen insight into understanding the influence of experience was a qualitative study of adult, pediatric, and neonatal intensive care unit (ICU) nurses, where the nurses were clustered into advanced beginner, intermediate, and expert level of practice categories. The advanced beginner (having up to 6 months of work experience) used procedures and protocols to determine which clinical actions were needed. When confronted with a complex patient situation, the advanced beginner felt their practice was unsafe because of a knowledge deficit or because of a knowledge application confusion. The transition from advanced beginners to competent practitioners began when they first had experience with actual clinical situations and could benefit from the knowledge gained from the mistakes of their colleagues. Competent nurses continuously questioned what they saw and heard, feeling an obligation to know more about clinical situations. In doing do, they moved from only using care plans and following the physicians’ orders to analyzing and interpreting patient situations. Beyond that, the proficient nurse acknowledged the changing relevance of clinical situations requiring action beyond what was planned or anticipated. The proficient nurse learned to acknowledge the changing needs of patient care and situation, and could organize interventions “by the situation as it unfolds rather than by preset goals 48 (p. 24). Both competent and proficient nurses (that is, intermediate level of practice) had at least two years of ICU experience. 48 Finally, the expert nurse had a more fully developed grasp of a clinical situation, a sense of confidence in what is known about the situation, and could differentiate the precise clinical problem in little time. 48

Expertise is acquired through professional experience and is indicative of a nurse who has moved beyond mere proficiency. As Gadamer 29 points out, experience involves a turning around of preconceived notions, preunderstandings, and extends or adds nuances to understanding. Dewey 49 notes that experience requires a prepared “creature” and an enriched environment. The opportunity to reflect and narrate one’s experiential learning can clarify, extend, or even refute experiential learning.

Experiential learning requires time and nurturing, but time alone does not ensure experiential learning. Aristotle linked experiential learning to the development of character and moral sensitivities of a person learning a practice. 50 New nurses/new graduates have limited work experience and must experience continuing learning until they have reached an acceptable level of performance. 51 After that, further improvements are not predictable, and years of experience are an inadequate predictor of expertise. 52

The most effective knower and developer of practical knowledge creates an ongoing dialogue and connection between lessons of the day and experiential learning over time. Gadamer, in a late life interview, highlighted the open-endedness and ongoing nature of experiential learning in the following interview response:

Being experienced does not mean that one now knows something once and for all and becomes rigid in this knowledge; rather, one becomes more open to new experiences. A person who is experienced is undogmatic. Experience has the effect of freeing one to be open to new experience … In our experience we bring nothing to a close; we are constantly learning new things from our experience … this I call the interminability of all experience 32 (p. 403).

Practical endeavor, supported by scientific knowledge, requires experiential learning, the development of skilled know-how, and perceptual acuity in order to make the scientific knowledge relevant to the situation. Clinical perceptual and skilled know-how helps the practitioner discern when particular scientific findings might be relevant. 53

Often experience and knowledge, confirmed by experimentation, are treated as oppositions, an either-or choice. However, in practice it is readily acknowledged that experiential knowledge fuels scientific investigation, and scientific investigation fuels further experiential learning. Experiential learning from particular clinical cases can help the clinician recognize future similar cases and fuel new scientific questions and study. For example, less experienced nurses—and it could be argued experienced as well—can use nursing diagnoses practice guidelines as part of their professional advancement. Guidelines are used to reflect their interpretation of patients’ needs, responses, and situation, 54 a process that requires critical thinking and decisionmaking. 55 , 56 Using guidelines also reflects one’s problem identification and problem-solving abilities. 56 Conversely, the ability to proficiently conduct a series of tasks without nursing diagnoses is the hallmark of expertise. 39 , 57

Experience precedes expertise. As expertise develops from experience and gaining knowledge and transitions to the proficiency stage, the nurses’ thinking moves from steps and procedures (i.e., task-oriented care) toward “chunks” or patterns 39 (i.e., patient-specific care). In doing so, the nurse thinks reflectively, rather than merely accepting statements and performing procedures without significant understanding and evaluation. 34 Expert nurses do not rely on rules and logical thought processes in problem-solving and decisionmaking. 39 Instead, they use abstract principles, can see the situation as a complex whole, perceive situations comprehensively, and can be fully involved in the situation. 48 Expert nurses can perform high-level care without conscious awareness of the knowledge they are using, 39 , 58 and they are able to provide that care with flexibility and speed. Through a combination of knowledge and skills gained from a range of theoretical and experiential sources, expert nurses also provide holistic care. 39 Thus, the best care comes from the combination of theoretical, tacit, and experiential knowledge. 59 , 60

Experts are thought to eventually develop the ability to intuitively know what to do and to quickly recognize critical aspects of the situation. 22 Some have proposed that expert nurses provide high-quality patient care, 61 , 62 but that is not consistently documented—particularly in consideration of patient outcomes—and a full understanding between the differential impact of care rendered by an “expert” nurse is not fully understood. In fact, several studies have found that length of professional experience is often unrelated and even negatively related to performance measures and outcomes. 63 , 64

In a review of the literature on expertise in nursing, Ericsson and colleagues 65 found that focusing on challenging, less-frequent situations would reveal individual performance differences on tasks that require speed and flexibility, such as that experienced during a code or an adverse event. Superior performance was associated with extensive training and immediate feedback about outcomes, which can be obtained through continual training, simulation, and processes such as root-cause analysis following an adverse event. Therefore, efforts to improve performance benefited from continual monitoring, planning, and retrospective evaluation. Even then, the nurse’s ability to perform as an expert is dependent upon their ability to use intuition or insights gained through interactions with patients. 39

Intuition and Perception

Intuition is the instant understanding of knowledge without evidence of sensible thought. 66 According to Young, 67 intuition in clinical practice is a process whereby the nurse recognizes something about a patient that is difficult to verbalize. Intuition is characterized by factual knowledge, “immediate possession of knowledge, and knowledge independent of the linear reasoning process” 68 (p. 23). When intuition is used, one filters information initially triggered by the imagination, leading to the integration of all knowledge and information to problem solve. 69 Clinicians use their interactions with patients and intuition, drawing on tacit or experiential knowledge, 70 , 71 to apply the correct knowledge to make the correct decisions to address patient needs. Yet there is a “conflated belief in the nurses’ ability to know what is best for the patient” 72 (p. 251) because the nurses’ and patients’ identification of the patients’ needs can vary. 73

A review of research and rhetoric involving intuition by King and Appleton 62 found that all nurses, including students, used intuition (i.e., gut feelings). They found evidence, predominately in critical care units, that intuition was triggered in response to knowledge and as a trigger for action and/or reflection with a direct bearing on the analytical process involved in patient care. The challenge for nurses was that rigid adherence to checklists, guidelines, and standardized documentation, 62 ignored the benefits of intuition. This view was furthered by Rew and Barrow 68 , 74 in their reviews of the literature, where they found that intuition was imperative to complex decisionmaking, 68 difficult to measure and assess in a quantitative manner, and was not linked to physiologic measures. 74

Intuition is a way of explaining professional expertise. 75 Expert nurses rely on their intuitive judgment that has been developed over time. 39 , 76 Intuition is an informal, nonanalytically based, unstructured, deliberate calculation that facilitates problem solving, 77 a process of arriving at salient conclusions based on relatively small amounts of knowledge and/or information. 78 Experts can have rapid insight into a situation by using intuition to recognize patterns and similarities, achieve commonsense understanding, and sense the salient information combined with deliberative rationality. 10 Intuitive recognition of similarities and commonalities between patients are often the first diagnostic clue or early warning, which must then be followed up with critical evaluation of evidence among the competing conditions. This situation calls for intuitive judgment that can distinguish “expert human judgment from the decisions” made by a novice 79 (p. 23).

Shaw 80 equates intuition with direct perception. Direct perception is dependent upon being able to detect complex patterns and relationships that one has learned through experience are important. Recognizing these patterns and relationships generally occurs rapidly and is complex, making it difficult to articulate or describe. Perceptual skills, like those of the expert nurse, are essential to recognizing current and changing clinical conditions. Perception requires attentiveness and the development of a sense of what is salient. Often in nursing and medicine, means and ends are fused, as is the case for a “good enough” birth experience and a peaceful death.

Applying Practice Evidence

Research continues to find that using evidence-based guidelines in practice, informed through research evidence, improves patients’ outcomes. 81–83 Research-based guidelines are intended to provide guidance for specific areas of health care delivery. 84 The clinician—both the novice and expert—is expected to use the best available evidence for the most efficacious therapies and interventions in particular instances, to ensure the highest-quality care, especially when deviations from the evidence-based norm may heighten risks to patient safety. Otherwise, if nursing and medicine were exact sciences, or consisted only of techne, then a 1:1 relationship could be established between results of aggregated evidence-based research and the best path for all patients.

Evaluating Evidence

Before research should be used in practice, it must be evaluated. There are many complexities and nuances in evaluating the research evidence for clinical practice. Evaluation of research behind evidence-based medicine requires critical thinking and good clinical judgment. Sometimes the research findings are mixed or even conflicting. As such, the validity, reliability, and generalizability of available research are fundamental to evaluating whether evidence can be applied in practice. To do so, clinicians must select the best scientific evidence relevant to particular patients—a complex process that involves intuition to apply the evidence. Critical thinking is required for evaluating the best available scientific evidence for the treatment and care of a particular patient.

Good clinical judgment is required to select the most relevant research evidence. The best clinical judgment, that is, reasoning across time about the particular patient through changes in the patient’s concerns and condition and/or the clinician’s understanding, are also required. This type of judgment requires clinicians to make careful observations and evaluations of the patient over time, as well as know the patient’s concerns and social circumstances. To evolve to this level of judgment, additional education beyond clinical preparation if often required.

Sources of Evidence

Evidence that can be used in clinical practice has different sources and can be derived from research, patient’s preferences, and work-related experience. 85 , 86 Nurses have been found to obtain evidence from experienced colleagues believed to have clinical expertise and research-based knowledge 87 as well as other sources.

For many years now, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have often been considered the best standard for evaluating clinical practice. Yet, unless the common threats to the validity (e.g., representativeness of the study population) and reliability (e.g., consistency in interventions and responses of study participants) of RCTs are addressed, the meaningfulness and generalizability of the study outcomes are very limited. Relevant patient populations may be excluded, such as women, children, minorities, the elderly, and patients with multiple chronic illnesses. The dropout rate of the trial may confound the results. And it is easier to get positive results published than it is to get negative results published. Thus, RCTs are generalizable (i.e., applicable) only to the population studied—which may not reflect the needs of the patient under the clinicians care. In instances such as these, clinicians need to also consider applied research using prospective or retrospective populations with case control to guide decisionmaking, yet this too requires critical thinking and good clinical judgment.

Another source of available evidence may come from the gold standard of aggregated systematic evaluation of clinical trial outcomes for the therapy and clinical condition in question, be generated by basic and clinical science relevant to the patient’s particular pathophysiology or care need situation, or stem from personal clinical experience. The clinician then takes all of the available evidence and considers the particular patient’s known clinical responses to past therapies, their clinical condition and history, the progression or stages of the patient’s illness and recovery, and available resources.

In clinical practice, the particular is examined in relation to the established generalizations of science. With readily available summaries of scientific evidence (e.g., systematic reviews and practice guidelines) available to nurses and physicians, one might wonder whether deep background understanding is still advantageous. Might it not be expendable, since it is likely to be out of date given the current scientific evidence? But this assumption is a false opposition and false choice because without a deep background understanding, the clinician does not know how to best find and evaluate scientific evidence for the particular case in hand. The clinician’s sense of salience in any given situation depends on past clinical experience and current scientific evidence.

Evidence-Based Practice

The concept of evidence-based practice is dependent upon synthesizing evidence from the variety of sources and applying it appropriately to the care needs of populations and individuals. This implies that evidence-based practice, indicative of expertise in practice, appropriately applies evidence to the specific situations and unique needs of patients. 88 , 89 Unfortunately, even though providing evidence-based care is an essential component of health care quality, it is well known that evidence-based practices are not used consistently.

Conceptually, evidence used in practice advances clinical knowledge, and that knowledge supports independent clinical decisions in the best interest of the patient. 90 , 91 Decisions must prudently consider the factors not necessarily addressed in the guideline, such as the patient’s lifestyle, drug sensitivities and allergies, and comorbidities. Nurses who want to improve the quality and safety of care can do so though improving the consistency of data and information interpretation inherent in evidence-based practice.

Initially, before evidence-based practice can begin, there needs to be an accurate clinical judgment of patient responses and needs. In the course of providing care, with careful consideration of patient safety and quality care, clinicians must give attention to the patient’s condition, their responses to health care interventions, and potential adverse reactions or events that could harm the patient. Nonetheless, there is wide variation in the ability of nurses to accurately interpret patient responses 92 and their risks. 93 Even though variance in interpretation is expected, nurses are obligated to continually improve their skills to ensure that patients receive quality care safely. 94 Patients are vulnerable to the actions and experience of their clinicians, which are inextricably linked to the quality of care patients have access to and subsequently receive.

The judgment of the patient’s condition determines subsequent interventions and patient outcomes. Attaining accurate and consistent interpretations of patient data and information is difficult because each piece can have different meanings, and interpretations are influenced by previous experiences. 95 Nurses use knowledge from clinical experience 96 , 97 and—although infrequently—research. 98–100

Once a problem has been identified, using a process that utilizes critical thinking to recognize the problem, the clinician then searches for and evaluates the research evidence 101 and evaluates potential discrepancies. The process of using evidence in practice involves “a problem-solving approach that incorporates the best available scientific evidence, clinicians’ expertise, and patient’s preferences and values” 102 (p. 28). Yet many nurses do not perceive that they have the education, tools, or resources to use evidence appropriately in practice. 103

Reported barriers to using research in practice have included difficulty in understanding the applicability and the complexity of research findings, failure of researchers to put findings into the clinical context, lack of skills in how to use research in practice, 104 , 105 amount of time required to access information and determine practice implications, 105–107 lack of organizational support to make changes and/or use in practice, 104 , 97 , 105 , 107 and lack of confidence in one’s ability to critically evaluate clinical evidence. 108

When Evidence Is Missing

In many clinical situations, there may be no clear guidelines and few or even no relevant clinical trials to guide decisionmaking. In these cases, the latest basic science about cellular and genomic functioning may be the most relevant science, or by default, guestimation. Consequently, good patient care requires more than a straightforward, unequivocal application of scientific evidence. The clinician must be able to draw on a good understanding of basic sciences, as well as guidelines derived from aggregated data and information from research investigations.

Practical knowledge is shaped by one’s practice discipline and the science and technology relevant to the situation at hand. But scientific, formal, discipline-specific knowledge are not sufficient for good clinical practice, whether the discipline be law, medicine, nursing, teaching, or social work. Practitioners still have to learn how to discern generalizable scientific knowledge, know how to use scientific knowledge in practical situations, discern what scientific evidence/knowledge is relevant, assess how the particular patient’s situation differs from the general scientific understanding, and recognize the complexity of care delivery—a process that is complex, ongoing, and changing, as new evidence can overturn old.

Practice communities like individual practitioners may also be mistaken, as is illustrated by variability in practice styles and practice outcomes across hospitals and regions in the United States. This variability in practice is why practitioners must learn to critically evaluate their practice and continually improve their practice over time. The goal is to create a living self-improving tradition.

Within health care, students, scientists, and practitioners are challenged to learn and use different modes of thinking when they are conflated under one term or rubric, using the best-suited thinking strategies for taking into consideration the purposes and the ends of the reasoning. Learning to be an effective, safe nurse or physician requires not only technical expertise, but also the ability to form helping relationships and engage in practical ethical and clinical reasoning. 50 Good ethical comportment requires that both the clinician and the scientist take into account the notions of good inherent in clinical and scientific practices. The notions of good clinical practice must include the relevant significance and the human concerns involved in decisionmaking in particular situations, centered on clinical grasp and clinical forethought.

The Three Apprenticeships of Professional Education

We have much to learn in comparing the pedagogies of formation across the professions, such as is being done currently by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The Carnegie Foundation’s broad research program on the educational preparation of the profession focuses on three essential apprenticeships:

To capture the full range of crucial dimensions in professional education, we developed the idea of a three-fold apprenticeship: (1) intellectual training to learn the academic knowledge base and the capacity to think in ways important to the profession; (2) a skill-based apprenticeship of practice; and (3) an apprenticeship to the ethical standards, social roles, and responsibilities of the profession, through which the novice is introduced to the meaning of an integrated practice of all dimensions of the profession, grounded in the profession’s fundamental purposes. 109

This framework has allowed the investigators to describe tensions and shortfalls as well as strengths of widespread teaching practices, especially at articulation points among these dimensions of professional training.

Research has demonstrated that these three apprenticeships are taught best when they are integrated so that the intellectual training includes skilled know-how, clinical judgment, and ethical comportment. In the study of nursing, exemplary classroom and clinical teachers were found who do integrate the three apprenticeships in all of their teaching, as exemplified by the following anonymous student’s comments:

With that as well, I enjoyed the class just because I do have clinical experience in my background and I enjoyed it because it took those practical applications and the knowledge from pathophysiology and pharmacology, and all the other classes, and it tied it into the actual aspects of like what is going to happen at work. For example, I work in the emergency room and question: Why am I doing this procedure for this particular patient? Beforehand, when I was just a tech and I wasn’t going to school, I’d be doing it because I was told to be doing it—or I’d be doing CPR because, you know, the doc said, start CPR. I really enjoy the Care and Illness because now I know the process, the pathophysiological process of why I’m doing it and the clinical reasons of why they’re making the decisions, and the prioritization that goes on behind it. I think that’s the biggest point. Clinical experience is good, but not everybody has it. Yet when these students transition from school and clinicals to their job as a nurse, they will understand what’s going on and why.

The three apprenticeships are equally relevant and intertwined. In the Carnegie National Study of Nursing Education and the companion study on medical education as well as in cross-professional comparisons, teaching that gives an integrated access to professional practice is being examined. Once the three apprenticeships are separated, it is difficult to reintegrate them. The investigators are encouraged by teaching strategies that integrate the latest scientific knowledge and relevant clinical evidence with clinical reasoning about particular patients in unfolding rather than static cases, while keeping the patient and family experience and concerns relevant to clinical concerns and reasoning.

Clinical judgment or phronesis is required to evaluate and integrate techne and scientific evidence.

Within nursing, professional practice is wise and effective usually to the extent that the professional creates relational and communication contexts where clients/patients can be open and trusting. Effectiveness depends upon mutual influence between patient and practitioner, student and learner. This is another way in which clinical knowledge is dialogical and socially distributed. The following articulation of practical reasoning in nursing illustrates the social, dialogical nature of clinical reasoning and addresses the centrality of perception and understanding to good clinical reasoning, judgment and intervention.

Clinical Grasp *

Clinical grasp describes clinical inquiry in action. Clinical grasp begins with perception and includes problem identification and clinical judgment across time about the particular transitions of particular patients. Garrett Chan 20 described the clinician’s attempt at finding an “optimal grasp” or vantage point of understanding. Four aspects of clinical grasp, which are described in the following paragraphs, include (1) making qualitative distinctions, (2) engaging in detective work, (3) recognizing changing relevance, and (4) developing clinical knowledge in specific patient populations.

Making Qualitative Distinctions

Qualitative distinctions refer to those distinctions that can be made only in a particular contextual or historical situation. The context and sequence of events are essential for making qualitative distinctions; therefore, the clinician must pay attention to transitions in the situation and judgment. Many qualitative distinctions can be made only by observing differences through touch, sound, or sight, such as the qualities of a wound, skin turgor, color, capillary refill, or the engagement and energy level of the patient. Another example is assessing whether the patient was more fatigued after ambulating to the bathroom or from lack of sleep. Likewise the quality of the clinician’s touch is distinct as in offering reassurance, putting pressure on a bleeding wound, and so on. 110

Engaging in Detective Work, Modus Operandi Thinking, and Clinical Puzzle Solving

Clinical situations are open ended and underdetermined. Modus operandi thinking keeps track of the particular patient, the way the illness unfolds, the meanings of the patient’s responses as they have occurred in the particular time sequence. Modus operandi thinking requires keeping track of what has been tried and what has or has not worked with the patient. In this kind of reasoning-in-transition, gains and losses of understanding are noticed and adjustments in the problem approach are made.

We found that teachers in a medical surgical unit at the University of Washington deliberately teach their students to engage in “detective work.” Students are given the daily clinical assignment of “sleuthing” for undetected drug incompatibilities, questionable drug dosages, and unnoticed signs and symptoms. For example, one student noted that an unusual dosage of a heart medication was being given to a patient who did not have heart disease. The student first asked her teacher about the unusually high dosage. The teacher, in turn, asked the student whether she had asked the nurse or the patient about the dosage. Upon the student’s questioning, the nurse did not know why the patient was receiving the high dosage and assumed the drug was for heart disease. The patient’s staff nurse had not questioned the order. When the student asked the patient, the student found that the medication was being given for tremors and that the patient and the doctor had titrated the dosage for control of the tremors. This deliberate approach to teaching detective work, or modus operandi thinking, has characteristics of “critical reflection,” but stays situated and engaged, ferreting out the immediate history and unfolding of events.

Recognizing Changing Clinical Relevance

The meanings of signs and symptoms are changed by sequencing and history. The patient’s mental status, color, or pain level may continue to deteriorate or get better. The direction, implication, and consequences for the changes alter the relevance of the particular facts in the situation. The changing relevance entailed in a patient transitioning from primarily curative care to primarily palliative care is a dramatic example, where symptoms literally take on new meanings and require new treatments.

Developing Clinical Knowledge in Specific Patient Populations

Extensive experience with a specific patient population or patients with particular injuries or diseases allows the clinician to develop comparisons, distinctions, and nuanced differences within the population. The comparisons between many specific patients create a matrix of comparisons for clinicians, as well as a tacit, background set of expectations that create population- and patient-specific detective work if a patient does not meet the usual, predictable transitions in recovery. What is in the background and foreground of the clinician’s attention shifts as predictable changes in the patient’s condition occurs, such as is seen in recovering from heart surgery or progressing through the predictable stages of labor and delivery. Over time, the clinician develops a deep background understanding that allows for expert diagnostic and interventions skills.

Clinical Forethought

Clinical forethought is intertwined with clinical grasp, but it is much more deliberate and even routinized than clinical grasp. Clinical forethought is a pervasive habit of thought and action in nursing practice, and also in medicine, as clinicians think about disease and recovery trajectories and the implications of these changes for treatment. Clinical forethought plays a role in clinical grasp because it structures the practical logic of clinicians. At least four habits of thought and action are evident in what we are calling clinical forethought: (1) future think, (2) clinical forethought about specific patient populations, (3) anticipation of risks for particular patients, and (4) seeing the unexpected.

Future think

Future think is the broadest category of this logic of practice. Anticipating likely immediate futures helps the clinician make good plans and decisions about preparing the environment so that responding rapidly to changes in the patient is possible. Without a sense of salience about anticipated signs and symptoms and preparing the environment, essential clinical judgments and timely interventions would be impossible in the typically fast pace of acute and intensive patient care. Future think governs the style and content of the nurse’s attentiveness to the patient. Whether in a fast-paced care environment or a slower-paced rehabilitation setting, thinking and acting with anticipated futures guide clinical thinking and judgment. Future think captures the way judgment is suspended in a predictive net of anticipation and preparing oneself and the environment for a range of potential events.

Clinical forethought about specific diagnoses and injuries

This habit of thought and action is so second nature to the experienced nurse that the new or inexperienced nurse may have difficulty finding out about what seems to other colleagues as “obvious” preparation for particular patients and situations. Clinical forethought involves much local specific knowledge about who is a good resource and how to marshal support services and equipment for particular patients.

Examples of preparing for specific patient populations are pervasive, such as anticipating the need for a pacemaker during surgery and having the equipment assembled ready for use to save essential time. Another example includes forecasting an accident victim’s potential injuries, and recognizing that intubation might be needed.

Anticipation of crises, risks, and vulnerabilities for particular patients

This aspect of clinical forethought is central to knowing the particular patient, family, or community. Nurses situate the patient’s problems almost like a topography of possibilities. This vital clinical knowledge needs to be communicated to other caregivers and across care borders. Clinical teaching could be improved by enriching curricula with narrative examples from actual practice, and by helping students recognize commonly occurring clinical situations in the simulation and clinical setting. For example, if a patient is hemodynamically unstable, then managing life-sustaining physiologic functions will be a main orienting goal. If the patient is agitated and uncomfortable, then attending to comfort needs in relation to hemodynamics will be a priority. Providing comfort measures turns out to be a central background practice for making clinical judgments and contains within it much judgment and experiential learning.

When clinical teaching is too removed from typical contingencies and strong clinical situations in practice, students will lack practice in active thinking-in-action in ambiguous clinical situations. In the following example, an anonymous student recounted her experiences of meeting a patient:

I was used to different equipment and didn’t know how things went, didn’t know their routine, really. You can explain all you want in class, this is how it’s going to be, but when you get there … . Kim was my first instructor and my patient that she assigned me to—I walked into the room and he had every tube imaginable. And so I was a little overwhelmed. It’s not necessarily even that he was that critical … . She asked what tubes here have you seen? Well, I know peripheral lines. You taught me PICC [peripherally inserted central catheter] lines, and we just had that, but I don’t really feel comfortable doing it by myself, without you watching to make sure that I’m flushing it right and how to assess it. He had a chest tube and I had seen chest tubes, but never really knew the depth of what you had to assess and how you make sure that it’s all kosher and whatever. So she went through the chest tube and explained, it’s just bubbling a little bit and that’s okay. The site, check the site. The site looked okay and that she’d say if it wasn’t okay, this is what it might look like … . He had a feeding tube. I had done feeding tubes but that was like a long time ago in my LPN experiences schooling. So I hadn’t really done too much with the feeding stuff either … . He had a [nasogastric] tube, and knew pretty much about that and I think at the time it was clamped. So there were no issues with the suction or whatever. He had a Foley catheter. He had a feeding tube, a chest tube. I can’t even remember but there were a lot.

As noted earlier, a central characteristic of a practice discipline is that a self-improving practice requires ongoing experiential learning. One way nurse educators can enhance clinical inquiry is by increasing pedagogies of experiential learning. Current pedagogies for experiential learning in nursing include extensive preclinical study, care planning, and shared postclinical debriefings where students share their experiential learning with their classmates. Experiential learning requires open learning climates where students can discuss and examine transitions in understanding, including their false starts, or their misconceptions in actual clinical situations. Nursing educators typically develop open and interactive clinical learning communities, so that students seem committed to helping their classmates learn from their experiences that may have been difficult or even unsafe. One anonymous nurse educator described how students extend their experiential learning to their classmates during a postclinical conference:

So for example, the patient had difficulty breathing and the student wanted to give the meds instead of addressing the difficulty of breathing. Well, while we were sharing information about their patients, what they did that day, I didn’t tell the student to say this, but she said, ‘I just want to tell you what I did today in clinical so you don’t do the same thing, and here’s what happened.’ Everybody’s listening very attentively and they were asking her some questions. But she shared that. She didn’t have to. I didn’t tell her, you must share that in postconference or anything like that, but she just went ahead and shared that, I guess, to reinforce what she had learned that day but also to benefit her fellow students in case that thing comes up with them.

The teacher’s response to this student’s honesty and generosity exemplifies her own approach to developing an open community of learning. Focusing only on performance and on “being correct” prevents learning from breakdown or error and can dampen students’ curiosity and courage to learn experientially.

Seeing the unexpected

One of the keys to becoming an expert practitioner lies in how the person holds past experiential learning and background habitual skills and practices. This is a skill of foregrounding attention accurately and effectively in response to the nature of situational demands. Bourdieu 29 calls the recognition of the situation central to practical reasoning. If nothing is routinized as a habitual response pattern, then practitioners will not function effectively in emergencies. Unexpected occurrences may be overlooked. However, if expectations are held rigidly, then subtle changes from the usual will be missed, and habitual, rote responses will inappropriately rule. The clinician must be flexible in shifting between what is in background and foreground. This is accomplished by staying curious and open. The clinical “certainty” associated with perceptual grasp is distinct from the kind of “certainty” achievable in scientific experiments and through measurements. Recognition of similar or paradigmatic clinical situations is similar to “face recognition” or recognition of “family resemblances.” This concept is subject to faulty memory, false associative memories, and mistaken identities; therefore, such perceptual grasp is the beginning of curiosity and inquiry and not the end. Assessment and validation are required. In rapidly moving clinical situations, perceptual grasp is the starting point for clarification, confirmation, and action. Having the clinician say out loud how he or she is understanding the situation gives an opportunity for confirmation and disconfirmation from other clinicians present. 111 The relationship between foreground and background of attention needs to be fluid, so that missed expectations allow the nurse to see the unexpected. For example, when the background rhythm of a cardiac monitor changes, the nurse notices, and what had been background tacit awareness becomes the foreground of attention. A hallmark of expertise is the ability to notice the unexpected. 20 Background expectations of usual patient trajectories form with experience. Tacit expectations for patient trajectories form that enable the nurse to notice subtle failed expectations and pay attention to early signs of unexpected changes in the patient's condition. Clinical expectations gained from caring for similar patient populations form a tacit clinical forethought that enable the experienced clinician to notice missed expectations. Alterations from implicit or explicit expectations set the stage for experiential learning, depending on the openness of the learner.

Learning to provide safe and quality health care requires technical expertise, the ability to think critically, experience, and clinical judgment. The high-performance expectation of nurses is dependent upon the nurses’ continual learning, professional accountability, independent and interdependent decisionmaking, and creative problem-solving abilities.

This section of the paper was condensed and paraphrased from Benner, Hooper-Kyriakidis, and Stannard. 23 Patricia Hooper-Kyriakidis wrote the section on clinical grasp, and Patricia Benner wrote the section on clinical forethought.

Cite this Page Benner P, Hughes RG, Sutphen M. Clinical Reasoning, Decisionmaking, and Action: Thinking Critically and Clinically. In: Hughes RG, editor. Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2008 Apr. Chapter 6.
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Countdown - The second hand can be used as a countdown timer by pressing the upper pusher and turning the bevel counterclockwise until the upper pusher is blocked, then setting it in place with the pin.
Clear Display - The display is extremely clear, making it easy to use in even the harshest yacht-racing situations.
Bezel - The bezel on this model acts independently from the mechanism, allowing it to be set and synchronized for up to 10 minutes on any countdown.

Yes. All real Rolex Yacht-Master II Watches are identical in their mechanical design, but there are multiple options when it comes to the watch's look. Whether you prefer a multicolor design or one that is uniform and sleek, you can find the look for you among these face color options on new and vintage Rolex Yacht-Master II watches:

The casings on Rolex Yacht-Master II watches are made from multiple materials. Each casing material has its own characteristics when it comes to weight, look, and feel. Consider what case material you want for your Rolex watch before purchasing. The following material options are available.

Stainless steel

The band is not to be overlooked when choosing the style of Rolex watch you want. The band has a drastic effect on the way a watch looks and feels. On top of that, it can influence the price for Rolex Yacht-Master II watches as well. The following materials can be found on eBay when shopping for these watches:

Yellow gold

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Rolex Datejust 16013 36MM Steel & 18k Gold, Silver Dial Jubilee Band, Fluted Bezel (1982) $ 5,795

Rolex Submariner 126619 41MM 18k White Gold, Oyster Bracelet Blue Ceramic Bezel, B&P (2022) $ 35,495

Yacht-Master II

Rolex Yachtmaster 2 Rose Gold

Join the product waitlist & get first dibs.

Product Details

Rolex yacht-master ii rose gold & steel 116681.

Rolex's sophisticated Yacht-Master II regatta timer is a testament to the brand's impressive watchmaking capabilities. At the heart of the watch beats a calibre 4161 Perpetual movement, complete with self-winding technology, a programmable timer with a mechanical memory and Flyback function, and Rolex's innovative Paramagnetic blue Parachrom hairspring. The movement also boasts chronograph functions, making this regatta timer the ideal companion for professional sailing. The ref. 116681 that you see here today also boasts a striking blue "Cerachrom" ceramic bezel insert with a 10-minute count-down, matching blue accents on the dial, and a sporty red seconds and arrow hand, giving this timepiece an unmistakable nautical aesthetic. This particular preowned Rolex Yacht-Master II also showcases a desirable Everose Rolesor dual-tone finish that pairs the brand's proprietary 18 karat rose gold with 904L stainless steel.

Authenticity

* All Pre-Owned Rolex watches are guaranteed to be 100% genuine and certified authentic. Certificates are issued by WatchCSA, the industry's leading independent authority on watch authentication. WatchCSA Certified Pre-Owned certificates are provided for an additional fee at checkout. All watches are shipped to fit the average size wrist (7 1/4" - 7 1/2" for men and 6 1/4" - 6 1/2" for women). Additional links can be purchased if needed. Note that "B&P" means "box and papers" where stated.

Shipping / Returns

Each order is ready for shipment within one (1) business day after the order is approved and processed. All watch orders are shipped FedEx overnight and are fully insured at no charge to the customer. Please be advised that for any deliveries from Bob's Watches, a recipient aged 21 years or older must be present to provide a signature upon receipt of the package.

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Outstanding experience, beautiful watch at a great price. Purchasing was easy and fast. Very nice people and excellent customer service. Thanks for your help.

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Sights of Elektrostal, Moscow region

Table of contents:, history of the city, park of culture and leisure, historical and art museum, october cultural center, kristall ice palace, memorial complex, museum and exhibition complex.

2024 Author : Harold Hamphrey | [email protected] . Last modified: 2023-12-17 10:06

In the Moscow region there is a small cozy town Elektrostal. Its sights for the most part have no historical value due to the fact that the city has a relatively small history. But for a visiting tourist or city dweller, they will be of interest. There is something to see, where to go to have an exciting leisure time.

Today the population of the city is 158 thousand people. Until the beginning of the 20th century there were several small workers' settlements here. After the opening of the electrometallurgical and equipment factories, the place began to be called the natural boundary of Calm. The construction of the railway made this settlement accessible, and workers and families flocked here to earn money. In 1925, the station was named Elektrostal, and the rapid increase in population allowed the village to receive the status of a city.

The founder of the city is a prominent Russian industrialist Nikolai Vtorov. It was he who opened the plant here, creating, in fact, a city-forming enterprise that is still operating. In Soviet times, it was a closed facility, and it was not easy to get to work here.

Today Elektrostal is a promising industrial city with a great future and a heroic past. It bears the proud name "City of Military and Labor Glory".

You can learn about the sights of Elektrostal with descriptions and photos here. There are places for walking, outdoor activities and cultural development.

sights of the electric steel of the Moscow region

Those who come to the city by train are met by a monument to the metallurgist. It was installed in November 2017 for the 100th anniversary of the Elektrostal plant. The attraction is made in the style of constructivism. The monument quickly won the love of the townspeople, because this city is supported by ordinary workers.

Elektrostal attractions photo with description

Elektrost altsy and the founding father of the plant, Nikolai Vtorov, are honored. In 2002, a monument was opened in honor of him, which became a landmark of the city of Elektrostal. The bronze sculpture is installed on the site where once stood a monument to the leader of the world proletariat, V. I. Lenin. Times change, characters change. Today, the plant, founded a century ago, is the largest in Russia. Vtorov himself, whose fortune was estimated at 60 million rubles in gold, according to Forbes magazine, was the owner of the largest capital at the beginning of the century. He was a banker, an industrialist, an entrepreneur, a man of action.

The monument was erected byinitiative of the townspeople who wished to perpetuate the monument to the great man.

One of the popular places for spending weekends and evenings among citizens and guests of the city is the Park of Culture and Leisure. Here you can ride attractions for children and adults, play slot machines, rollerblade or bike. The park is divided into two zones. Fans of unhurried walks in the fresh air make a promenade on the Quiet Alley, and those who prefer outdoor activities flock to the Entertainment Alley. The park has a summer stage, where concerts and cafes are regularly held.

Until 1999, there was no central museum among the attractions of Elektrostal in the Moscow Region. The expositions were exhibited in schools, the house of culture, in factory museums. The city was closed, so there was no large influx of tourists and visitors. The appearance of the historical and art museum made it possible for residents and guests of the city to learn a lot of useful information about their native land, the formation of the production process, and the difficult years of the war. The exposition consists of paintings by local artists, historical artifacts, household items, documents, books and much more. The collection is updated regularly. It also hosts outdoor exhibitions, which are always popular with the townspeople.

One of the main attractions of Elektrostal, the photo of which is available to almost every resident or visitor, is the Main Alley. On herpassers-by like to stroll along shady paths, townspeople rest by the fountain after a hard shift at the plant. Flower beds are the decoration of the alley. In 2006, a flower festival was held here for the first time, which has become traditional. Each enterprise of the city and private individuals give residents a real composition of fresh flowers, which pleases with bright colors all summer long. A riot of colors, aromas and a flight of fantasy reigns here. Walking through the park, you can see Snow White with a basket, a bright well, a multi-tiered cake made from fresh flowers, hearts of lovers or a fabulous house. It is almost impossible not to take a photo against the background of these compositions.

There is a cultural center in the city. It hosts performances by local creative teams and visiting stars, performances and circus performances.

In 1971, the ice palace "Crystal" was opened in the city. Almost immediately, a children's and youth hockey team was organized, which gained sports fame. This is the home sports arena for the Elektrostal hockey team. Matches of different levels are held on the ice.

There are sections for children who go in for hockey or figure skating. Citizens come here with their families to cheer for their favorite team or go ice skating.

Elektrostal is a city with a heroic past. During the war years, more than 12 thousand citizens came to the recruiting station and went to the front to defend their homeland. Almost 4 thousand of them did not return from the battle. To these heroesdedicated to the memorial complex with the inextinguishable Eternal Flame, opened in 1968

But the electricians took part in the war in Afghanistan and Chechnya. By decision of the city authorities, their memory is also immortalized in the memorial complex.

It has become a good tradition for newlyweds to lay flowers at this monument.

In 1999, a museum and exhibition complex was opened in the city, where, in addition to the exhibition hall, there are numerous circles for children, classes for young people, and a creative workshop. Various festivals, exhibitions, city holidays and other events are held within the walls and on the territory of the complex, which attract many spectators.

Listing the sights of Elektrostal, it is impossible not to mention the temples. There are several of them in the city: the church of St. John of Kronstadt, St. Andrew's Church, the hospital church of St. Panteleimon. Another new church is being built. In appearance, the temples look ancient, monumental, in the Novgorod style. But they were all built at the end of the 20th century.

Let there be no ancient artifacts among the sights of Elektrostal. But on the other hand, all of them are connected with the history of the city, with everyday work and military exploits of ordinary residents.

Recreation centers and boarding houses of the Moscow region allow you to comfortably spend weekends, vacations, celebrate an anniversary or holidays. Constantly busy Muscovites take the opportunity to escape from the embrace of the capital to recuperate, improve their he alth, think or just be with family and friends. Each district of the Moscow region has its own tourist places

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Elektrostal, russia.

Region: Moscow Oblast

Geographic coordinates: 55.783300, 38.466700, temperature range: -40.0°c to 30.0°c (-40°f to 86°f), climate: cold and snowy winters, mild summers with occasional heat waves., population: 158508, language: russian.

Elektrostal, Located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, Is a city known for its industrial heritage and diverse economy. With a population of around 150, 000 people, It lies approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow. Founded in 1916 as an industrial center for steel and metal production, Elektrostal’s most notable landmark is the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant (EMZ). The plant produces various steel products including railway wheels, Pipes, Wire rod, And sheet metal. Apart from its industrial significance, Elektrostal offers several cultural attractions that are worth visiting.

The Museum-Estate Kuskovo features an impressive collection of art and artifacts from the 18th century. Lake Senezh – a large freshwater lake outside Elektrostal’s city limits – provides opportunities for swimming, Boating or fishing during summer months. Elektrostal also has several parks where visitors can enjoy outdoor activities such as hiking or cycling. Gorky Park features walking paths along with sports facilities like tennis courts and basketball courts. Public transport within Elektrostal itself is convenient with numerous bus routes connecting different parts within the city limits as well as nearby towns like Noginsk or Dmitrovskiy Districts in Moscow Region.

Overall Elektrostal offers visitors an interesting mix of industrial heritage, Cultural attractions and natural beauty making it definitely worth a visit whether you’re interested in learning about Russia’s steel industry or simply want to enjoy the outdoors.

Important Landmarks

The Museum of Local Lore – it showcases the history and culture of the town.
The Church of St. Nicholas – a beautiful Orthodox church built in the 19th century.
Victory Park – a large park with several monuments dedicated to World War II heroes.
Ice Palace Vityaz – a modern ice arena that hosts various sports events and concerts.
Elektrostal Central Park – a popular spot for picnics, walking, and outdoor activities.
The Monument to Soviet Soldiers – located in Victory Square, it honors soldiers who died during World War II.
Elektrostal History Museum – displays artifacts from ancient times to present day including photographs, documents, paintings etc.,
Kuzminsky Park- A beautiful park with greenery all around perfect for spending some quality time with family or friends

Primary Industries

Metallurgical Industry: Elektrostal is renowned for its steel production industry that involves the manufacturing of steel pipes, wires, sheets and other metal products.
Chemical Industry: The city boasts several chemical plants that produce chemicals such as ammonia, fertilizers and plastics.
Machinery Industry: Elektrostal has a significant machinery industry that produces machine tools, mining equipment and other industrial machinery.
Construction Materials Industry: There are several cement factories in the city producing cement and concrete products.
Food Processing Industry: Several food processing plants operate within the city producing dairy products, meat products and other food items.
Energy Sector: The city houses a thermal power plant which supplies electricity to the region.
Retail and Service Sector: Additionally, there is a well-developed retail sector with shopping centers, supermarkets and small shops catering to the local population’s needs.

Noteable History

The city was founded in 1916 as a center for steel production during World War I.
During World War II, Elektrostal played a crucial role in supplying the Soviet army with weapons and ammunition.
In 1957, the first nuclear power plant in Russia was built near Elektrostal.
The city is known for producing high-quality steel that is used in various industries such as automotive, aerospace, and construction.
Notable people from Elektrostal include Olympic gold medalist figure skater Irina Slutskaya and former Russian Prime Minister Sergei Kiriyenko.
In recent years, the city has undergone significant modernization efforts to improve its infrastructure and attract new businesses to the area.

Museums and Things To See

Museum of Local Lore: This museum showcases the history and culture of Elektrostal and the surrounding region.
Victory Park: A large park dedicated to the victory in World War II, with monuments, memorials, and a military museum.
Church of St. Nicholas: A beautiful Orthodox church with stunning frescoes and icons.
The House-Museum of V.V.Vorovsky: This museum is dedicated to the revolutionary leader Vorovsky who lived in Elektrostal for a time.
The Central Culture and Leisure Park: A popular park with various attractions like amusement rides, sports facilities, cafes etc.
The Monument to the First Builders of Elektrostal: This monument commemorates those who built the city’s first industrial complex.
Art Gallery Art-El: An art center featuring works by local artists as well as exhibitions from around Russia and beyond.
Museum Elektrosvet: A unique museum showcasing lighting equipment from various periods starting from 19th century till present day.

Cultural Events

City Day Celebration: This festival is held annually on the first weekend of September to celebrate the founding of Elektrostal.
International Festival The World of Dance: A dance festival featuring performances from various countries around the world.
Folklore Kaleidoscope Festival: A cultural event showcasing traditional folk music, dance, and costumes from different regions of Russia.
Art-Electro Festival: An art exhibition featuring works by local artists as well as artists from other parts of Russia.
Jazz Festivals: There are several jazz festivals held throughout the year in Elektrostal which feature performances by local and international jazz musicians.

Shashlychnaya No. 1 – A restaurant specializing in shashlik (Russian kebabs) and other grilled meats.
Cafe U Dvukh Medvedey – A cozy cafe serving traditional Russian dishes like borscht, pelmeni (dumplings), and blini (pancakes).
Pivnaya Apteka – A beer bar with a wide selection of craft beers from Russia and around the world.
Kebab House – A fast-food chain offering various types of kebabs, falafel wraps, and salads.
Cafe Podkova – Another cozy cafe serving Russian dishes like beef stroganoff, chicken Kiev, and dumplings with different fillings.
Restaurant Kolbasny Dom – A meat lover’s paradise with various types of sausages, smoked meats, and steaks on the menu.
Sushi Master – For those who crave Japanese cuisine; this sushi restaurant offers fresh sushi rolls and sashimi plates.
Pizzeria Mama Mia!- If you’re in the mood for Italian food; this pizzeria offers delicious pizzas made from scratch using fresh ingredients.
Cafe Kamelot- A cozy café serving traditional Russian dishes such as borscht soup,pelmeni (dumplings),and vareniki(boiled dumplings).
Restaurant “Gagarin”- Named after Yuri Gagarin; this restaurant serves European cuisine including steaks,pasta,and salads along with exotic cocktails to choose from!

Parks and Recreation

Central Park of Culture and Rest
Park of the 50th Anniversary of Victory
Park of the 300th Anniversary of Elektrostal
Sports and Recreation Complex Olympic
Ice Palace Elektrostal
Ski resort Krugloye Ozero
Beach complex Sunny Beach
Tennis club Elektrostal
Bowling club Strike
Paintball club Delta Force

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.css-1obzumv{font-weight:700;font-size:clamp(1.875rem, 1.25rem + 1.5625vw, 3.125rem);line-height:1.2;margin-bottom:1rem;line-height:1.1;}.css-1obzumv:lang(th){line-height:1.5;} Yacht-Master II .css-18uwo57{font-size:clamp(1.125rem, 1.0625rem + 0.1563vw, 1.25rem);line-height:1.6;font-weight:300;line-height:1.2;text-wrap:balance;}.css-18uwo57 span{display:block;} Oyster, 44 mm, Oystersteel Reference 116680

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The art of command

The Oyster Perpetual Yacht-Master II in Oystersteel with an Oyster bracelet and a bidirectional rotatable bezel with a blue Cerachrom insert .

Ring command bezel, a synchronized countdown.

Rolex achieved perfection when it turned its attention to redefining the purpose and functionality of the bezel. Typically, a bezel operates independently from the internal mechanism; however, the Ring Command bezel in the Yacht-Master II regatta chronograph operates in conjunction with it.

As a mechanical component linked to the movement, the bezel literally acts as the key to the programmable countdown, allowing it to be set and synchronised to the sequence of race start times. Complex in design, but simple in use, it is functionally beautiful.

A characteristic aesthetic

The Yacht-Master II is equipped with a new dial, and new hands that are characteristic of Rolex Professional models, enhancing legibility and sharpening its aesthetic appeal. The dial now features a triangular hour marker at 12 o’clock and a rectangular hour marker at 6 o’clock for more intuitive reading of the watch.

A luminescent disc on the hour hand clearly distinguishes it from the minute hand. The Yacht-Master II’s countdown can be programmed for a duration of between 1 and 10 minutes. The programming is memorized by the mechanism so that at a reset it returns to the previous setting. Once launched, the countdown can be synchronized on the fly to match the official race countdown.

Oystersteel

Highly resistant to corrosion

Rolex uses Oystersteel for its steel watch cases. Specially developed by the brand, Oystersteel belongs to the 904L steel family, alloys most commonly used in high-technology and in the aerospace and chemical industries, where maximum resistance to corrosion is essential.

Oystersteel is extremely resistant, offers an exceptional finish once polished and maintains its beauty even in the harshest environments.

The Oyster bracelet

Alchemy of form and function.

The Oyster bracelet is a perfect alchemy of form and function, aesthetics and technology, designed to be both robust and comfortable. It is equipped with an Oysterlock folding clasp, which prevents accidental opening and the Easylink comfort extension link, also exclusive to Rolex.

This ingenious system allows the wearer to increase the bracelet length by approximately 5 mm, providing additional comfort in any circumstance.

More Yacht-Master technical details

Reference 116680

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Oyster, 44 mm, Oystersteel

Oyster architecture

Monobloc middle case, screw-down case back and winding crown

Bidirectional rotatable Ring Command bezel. Blue Cerachrom insert in ceramic, moulded numerals and inscription

Winding crown

Screw-down, Triplock triple waterproofness system

Scratch-resistant sapphire

Water resistance

Waterproof to 100 metres / 330 feet

Perpetual, mechanical, self-winding, regatta chronograph

4161, Manufacture Rolex

-2/+2 sec/day, after casing

Centre hour and minute hands, small seconds hand at 6 o'clock. Programmable countdown with mechanical memory and on-the-fly synchronization. Stop-seconds for precise time setting

Paramagnetic blue Parachrom hairspring

Bidirectional self-winding via Perpetual rotor

Power reserve

Approximately 72 hours

Oyster, three-piece solid links

Folding Oysterlock safety clasp with Easylink 5 mm comfort extension link

Highly legible Chromalight display with long-lasting blue luminescence

Certification

Superlative Chronometer (COSC + Rolex certification after casing)

Learn how to set the time and other functions of your Rolex watch by consulting our user guides.

Contact an Official Rolex Jeweler

Only official Rolex jewelers are allowed to sell and maintain a Rolex watch. With the necessary skills, technical know-how and special equipment, they guarantee the authenticity of each and every part of your Rolex and help you make the choice that will last a lifetime.

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2023+ NEW 116688 Yacht-Master II Yellow Gold 44mm White Dial Ceramic Bezel $ 49,425. Free shipping. US. Promoted. Rolex Yacht-Master II. 116688 $ 47,895 + $99 for shipping. IT. Promoted. Rolex Yacht-Master II. NEW 2023 Blue Ceramic Bezel Regatta Timer 44MM 18k Yellow Gold $ 49,995. Free shipping. US.

US. Rolex Yacht-Master II. 116681 Yacht-Master II 44mm Two Tone 18K Rose Gold Stainless Steel White Dial Complete Set. $ 22,600. Free shipping. US. Rolex Yacht-Master II. 2022 Yacht-Master II Mercedes Hands Stainless Steel Blue Ceramic Bezel 116680. $ 18,200.

Buy and sell authentic used Rolex Yacht-Master II watches. Explore great deals from local and international sellers on the Chrono24 marketplace. Financing available in the USA. ... Like New 2019 Yacht-Master II 2-Tone Rose Gold White Dial 116681 COMPLETE $ 23,495 + $99 for shipping. US. Rolex Yacht-Master II. Stainless Steel/Rose Gold 2020 $ 24,800

Diameter. 44 mm. Material. 18 ct yellow gold. Bezel. Rolex Ring Command (bidirectional 90° rotatable interacting with the movement) in 18 ct gold with blue Cerachrom insert in ceramic and numerals coated in gold. Winding crown. Screw-down, Triplock triple waterproofness system. Crystal.

Rolex Yacht-Master II on Chrono24.ca. New offers daily. In stock now. Save favorite watches & buy your dream watch. ... Like New 2019 Yacht-Master II 2-Tone Rose Gold White Dial 116681 COMPLETE. C$ 32,517 + C$346 for shipping. US. Rolex Yacht-Master II. Stainless Steel/Rose Gold 2020. C$ 34,323

Rolex Yacht-Master II Mens Gold Watch 116688 on Sale - Best Rolex Prices Online with Free Overnight Shipping and Authenticity Guaranteed. ... Rolex Yacht-Master II 18k Yellow Gold Men's Luxury Watch 116688-0002. Sale Price: $ 49,995.00. Availability. Usually ships within 1-2 months.

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Price List of all Rolex Yacht-Master 2 Watch Models in our Online Store. We Buy, Sell, and Trade-in Brand New & Pre-Owned Rolex Watches. Best Price Guaranteed. For Sale: 18k white gold, yellow gold, platinum and regatta Models. Buyer ... Originally made available in 18k yellow gold alone, the Yacht-Master line has since seen the ...

About The Rolex Yacht-Master II The Rolex Yacht-Master II was released in 2007 and has since become a pillar of the Big Crown's maritime-inspired collection of timepieces. The Yacht-Master II was developed for yacht racing and includes a programmable countdown mechanism that can be adjusted from 1 to 10 minutes. The Yacht-Master II's regatta chronograph is also another noteworthy feature ...

Rolex Yacht-Master 116688 Gold Oyster Bracelet with Blue Bezel (4) Total Ratings 4. $49,999.00 New. ... models in a wide variety of designs for both men and women. eBay has a number of Rolex Yacht-Master II watches for sale. Does the Yacht-Master II have interactive features? Yes. The watch is designed with both form and function in mind.

Some models feature bezel inserts made of scratch-resistant ceramic. The Yacht-Master's case is water-resistant to 100 m (10 bar, 328 ft), meaning it can join you for a swim or snorkel. The collection's top model is the yellow gold Yacht-Master II with a regatta chronograph. This countdown function is provided by the caliber 4161 and is ...

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The Yacht-Master II is equipped with a new dial, and new hands that are characteristic of Rolex Professional models, enhancing legibility and sharpening its aesthetic appeal. The dial now features a triangular hour marker at 12 o'clock and a rectangular hour marker at 6 o'clock for more intuitive reading of the watch.

Model: Yacht-Master 116681 Serial: Random - 2011 or newer Gender: Men's Movement: Automatic 4161 Case: 18k Everose gold case w/ 90 degree rotatable pink gold bezel (44mm), inner reflector ring engraved w/ serial number Dial: White Arabic w/ luminescent hands and hour markers, minute markers around outer rim, red second hand Bracelet: 18k Everose gold and stainless steel w/ Oysterlock clasp Box ...

Rolex Yacht-Master 37. 268621 Yachtmaster 18K/SS with Black Dial 37mm. $ 14,975. + $50 for shipping. US. Popular. Rolex Yacht-Master 42. 42mm Black Dial White Gold Oysterflex 226659 Box & Papers 2022.

Discover the Yacht-Master models, a combination of character, performance and robustness. The ideal Rolex watches for water sports and sailing. ... Yacht-Master 42. Oyster, 42 mm, white gold. Yacht-Master 42. Oyster, 42 mm, yellow gold. Unyielding performance. Oysterflex Discover more. Yacht-Master 42. Oyster, 42 mm, white gold. Yacht-Master 37.

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Rolex Yacht-Master. Serial W 18K Yellow Gold Automatic Mens Watch 68628 BF554581. $ 11,212. Free shipping. JP. Promoted. Rolex Yacht-Master 42. 2023+ NEW Yacht-Master 42mm 226658 Yellow Gold Black Oysterflex Rubber Strap Strap. $ 33,325.

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Rolex Yacht-Master II. 2008 Mens Yacht-Master II 116689 White Dial 18kt WG Bracelet W/B+P 44mm. $ 28,500. + $50 for shipping. US. Rolex Yacht-Master II. Regatta White Gold Platinum Mens Watch 116689 Box Card. $ 32,010.

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Creator 3-in-1

Cruising Adventures

Retired Product

Specifications

Head for sunny shores with the LEGO® Creator 3in1 31083 Cruising Adventures set, featuring a luxury yacht with a cool blue and white color scheme and an array of realistic details, including a radar and an accessible cabin with toilet. The yacht also features 4 hull-mounted life preservers and comes with a water scooter, surfboard, fishing rod, palm tree and a sandcastle. Rebuild this set for whole new adventures featuring a cozy Beach House with a dock and sailboat, or a Helicopter with a landing pad and control tower. Includes 3 minifigures, all ready for fun and adventure.

Includes 3 minifigures: a male, female and a child, all ready for fun and adventure.
Features a luxury yacht with a detailed cabin and toilet, radar and 4 hull-mounted life preservers, plus a fishing rod, palm tree, sandcastle and a water scooter.
Sail the luxury yacht to a sunny bay, hop onto the water scooter and head for the beach.
Build a sandcastle, try a spot of surfing or enjoy a picnic beneath the shade of a palm tree.
Continue the adventure with this LEGO® Creator 3in1 model. Rebuild to create a cozy Beach House with a dock and sailboat or an awesome Helicopter with a landing pad and control tower.
Luxury Yacht measures over 6” (16cm) high, 10” (27cm) long and 3” (10cm) wide.
Beach House measures 3” (9cm) high, 5” (13cm) wide and 7” (19cm) deep.
Helicopter fuselage measures over 7” (16cm) long.

Customer Reviews

IMAGES

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LEGO® Friends 41015 Yacht (2013)
LEGO Friends Sunshine Catamaran 41317 Building Kit (603 Piece
Lego 41015
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LEGO Friends 41015

VIDEO

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OMG! This Lego yacht is HUGE!!! Instructions available! #legoyacht #legoboat #lego

COMMENTS

Amazon.com: Lego Friends Yacht
1-48 of 100 results for "lego friends yacht" Results. LEGO. 41381 Friends Rescue Mission Boat and Lego Island Toy for Kids with Olivia, Andrea and Mia Mini Dolls, Plus Robot and Whale Figures, Sea Life Rescue Series ... Dream Girls Cruise Ship Building Toys Playset Creative Friends Yacht Building Sets 318 Pieces Girls City Boat Model Building ...
Sunshine Catamaran 41317
Includes Olivia, Stephanie and Liam mini-dolls, plus Sheen and Sapphire the dolphin figures. LEGO Friends brick building toys are compatible with all other LEGO construction sets for creative building. Catamaran with sail measures over 12" high, 11" long and 6" wide. Personal water scooter measures over 1" long and 1" wide, and under ...
LEGO Friends Rescue Mission Boat 41381 Toy Boat Building Kit with Mini
The LEGO Friends Rescue Mission Boat 41381 buildable toy can be built together with all other original LEGO sets and LEGO bricks for creative building. LEGO boat set measures over 6 inches (17cm) high, 15 inches (40cm) long and 4 inches (12cm) wide speedboat measures over 1 inches (3cm) high, 3 inches (9cm) long and 1 inches (5cm) wide ...
Sunshine Catamaran 41317
Make friends with the dolphins as they swim alongside the catamaran. LEGO® Friends Sunshine Catamaran does not float on water. Catamaran with sail measures over 12" (32cm) high, 11" (29cm) long and 6" (17cm) wide. Personal water scooter measures over 1" (5cm) long and 1" (3cm) wide, and under 1" (2cm) high. Banana boat measures ...
LEGO Friends Sea Rescue Boat Dolphin Building Toy 41734
A gift for kids who love sea life - This LEGO Friends set makes a gift idea for boys and girls ages 7 and up who would love to build a Sea Rescue Boat and create their own ocean adventures Sized for young builders - The LEGO Friends Sea Rescue Boat toy measures over 8 in.(20 cm) high, 13 in. (33 cm) long and 7 in. (18 cm) wide
LEGO 41317 Sunshine Catamaran Instructions, Friends
Instructions For LEGO 41317 Sunshine Catamaran. These are the instructions for building the LEGO Friends Sunshine Catamaran that was released in 2017. LEGO 41317 Sunshine Catamaran instructions displayed page by page to help you build this amazing LEGO Friends set.
LEGO 41015 Dolphin Cruiser Instructions, Friends
Instructions For LEGO 41015 Dolphin Cruiser. These are the instructions for building the LEGO Friends Dolphin Cruiser that was released in 2013. LEGO 41015 Dolphin Cruiser instructions displayed page by page to help you build this amazing LEGO Friends set.
Sea Rescue Boat 41734
LEGO® Friends Sea Rescue Boat. Buildable catamaran. The catamaran doubles as a research laboratory. A clean-up mission. Roll the boat over the trash to capture it. Protect the ocean. Nova dives down in the submarine to collect more trash. Tell the story
Rescue Mission Boat
Every second counts as three friends work to rescue a narwhal beached in the shallow waters of Heartlake City Bay. Race to nurse the whale with Mia in her rescue boat. Help LEGO® Friends Andrea to steady the LEGO Friends boat while Olivia operates the toy crane to lift the wreckage from the whale's back and stretcher her in. Keep the whale cool in the mission boat's ice pool as they speed out ...
LEGO Friends Sea Rescue Boat 41734 Building Toy Set for Boys & Girls
A gift for kids who love sea life - This LEGO Friends set makes a gift idea for boys and girls ages 7 and up who would love to build a Sea Rescue Boat and create their own ocean adventures ; Sized for young builders - The LEGO Friends Sea Rescue Boat toy measures over 8 in.(20 cm) high, 13 in. (33 cm) long and 7 in. (18 cm) wide
LEGO FRIENDS: Yacht (41015) for sale online
Find many great new & used options and get the best deals for LEGO FRIENDS: Yacht (41015) at the best online prices at eBay! Free shipping for many products!
LEGO 41702 Canal Houseboat Instructions, Friends
Instructions For LEGO 41702 Canal Houseboat. These are the instructions for building the LEGO Friends Canal Houseboat that was released in 2022. LEGO 41702 Canal Houseboat instructions displayed page by page to help you build this amazing LEGO Friends set.
LEGO unveils Harry Potter, Disney, City and Friends Advent Calendars
May 2, 2024 by Amie Cranswick. LEGO has unveiled its 2024 Advent Calendar selection, which includes new offerings for the LEGO Harry Potter, LEGO Disney, LEGO City, and LEGO Friends themes, and ...
LEGO Russia Archives
In 2018 and 2019 I was part of a group of LEGO builders in Vietnam War and Cold War collaborations, for BrickFair Virginia. For the 2020 event, we're planning another collaboration.
LEGO IDEAS
Moscow, capital of the Russian Federation, and the second largest city in Europe, with over 12.5 million people. For a city so famous, then why not to have a dedicated Architecture Skyline set? It contains 694 pieces (without the brick remover and spare pieces) and one exclusive printed piece (the 1x8 name tile).
Dolphin Cruiser 41015
Split the yacht to play inside!• Slip down the waterslide and go for a swim!• Search for dolphins with the sonar!• LEGO® Friends pieces are fully compatible with all LEGO System bricks• Collect all of the LEGO Friends sets for a whole world of LEGO Friends fun!• LEGO mini-dolls are LEGO figures made especially for the world of LEGO ...
LEGO Fortnite Star Wars 29.40 Patch Notes
The v29.40 Patch introduces various Star Wars elements to LEGO Fortnite, including Lightsabers, other weaponry and tools, the Rebel Village, and more! This page acts as a comprehensive breakdown ...
Stephanie's Sailing Adventure 41716
Creative play for kids who love the sea. Broaden youngsters' horizons with this brick-built boat set, which includes 3 mini-dolls and a finish line build.
lady lara yacht ibiza
Impressions; At 91 meters in length, Lady Lara is an ultramodern superyacht with sweeping curves and an elegantly balanced profile. Dynamic, sculpted features carry through her ex
LEGO Friends Party Boat 41433 Including LEGO Friends Emma, Andrea and
Kids can pretend to be LEGO Friends Andrea, Emma or Ethan sailing the party boat or relaxing on deck while playing with the flamingo, serving in the store renting out beach kit or riding the water scooter ... BRICK STORY Dream Girls Cruise Ship Building Toys Playset Creative Friends Yacht Building Sets 318 Pieces Girls City Boat Model Building ...
gold yacht master 2 for sale
2023+ NEW 116688 Yacht-Master II Yellow Gold 44mm White Dial Ceramic Bezel $ 49,425. Free shipping. US. Promoted. Rolex Yacht-Master II. 116688 $ 47,895 + $99 for shipping. IT. Promoted. Rolex Yacht-Master II. NEW 2023 Blue Ceramic Bezel Regatta Timer 44MM 18k Yellow Gold $ 49,995. Free shipping. US.... US. Rolex Yacht-Master II. 116681 Yacht-Master II 44mm Two Tone 18K Rose Gold Stainless ...
Amazon.com: Lego Friends Yacht
49-96 of 126 results for "lego friends yacht" Results. LEGO Friends 3937 Olivia's Speedboat. 4.4 out of 5 stars 135. $29.99 $ 29. 99. Typical: $32.60 $32.60. FREE delivery Nov 15 - 16 . ... LEGO Friends Dog Rescue Center 41727, Pet Animal Playset for Kids Ages 7 Plus Years Old with 2023 Series Characters Autumn and Zac Mini-Dolls, Toy Vet Set.
Cruising Adventures 31083
Friends. Harry Potter™ ... Head for sunny shores with the LEGO® Creator 3in1 31083 Cruising Adventures set, featuring a luxury yacht with a cool blue and white color scheme and an array of realistic details, including a radar and an accessible cabin with toilet. The yacht also features 4 hull-mounted life preservers and comes with a water ...